
^f^^ 



o 



LESSOISrS ON OBJECTS, 



0¥f 



GRADUATED SERIES; 



DESIGNED P^OR 



€kxM\x Mismx t(jf u^ts of B'k mis imttuw fmu : 

CONTAINING, ALSO, 

IIFORMATIOi\ 0^ COMMON OBJECTS. 

^' ■ ■ ' ■ 

<<' 

ARRANGED 

By E. a. SHELDOE", 

supt. public schools, oswego, n. t., author of elementary instbuction, 

EKADINO BOOK AND CHAETS, ETC., ETC. 



NEW YORK: 
PUBLISHED BY CHARLES SCRIBNER 

1863. 



<A 



V^\A 



A 



1 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in tho year 1SC3, by 

Charles Sckibxer, 

In the Clerk's Office of tho District Court of the United States, for the 
Southern District of New York. 



2 1 Ip O I 



% V' ' 



PEEFACE. 



The fourteentli edition of " Lessons on Objects " 
was publislied in London in 1855, under the auspices 
of the Home and Colonial Training Institution, and 
underwent at that time a thorough revision. 

In this American edition many changes have been 
made in the arrangement of the Lessons. Some 
of the terms have been modified, others left out al- 
together. A number of the lessons have been omit- 
ted and others substituted in their place, and much 
information on common objects has been added. In 
the original work there were but few Model Lessons ; 
in this, a large a'dditional number have been inserted. 
These have been taken from " Manual of Elementary In- 
struction," ^^ Model Lessons/' and '' Notes and Sketches 
of Lessons," all London publications. The arrange- 
ment of the Steps correspond to the arrangement in the 
" Manual of Elementary Instruction." The first three 
steps are designed for the first three years of the child's 
school life, or for the Primary Schools. The fourth and 
fifth steps are adapted to the junior or intermediate 
grade, or for pupils from ten to fourteen years of age. 

The Models given are designed to aid the teacher 
in the preparation of her lessons, as suggestions in re- 



PREFACE. 



gard to tlio proper method of arranging and present- 
ing them, and not as forms to be implicitly or blindly- 
followed. 

In cases where lists of the names of the qualities of 
objects are given, it is not essential that the children 
should be led to the discovery of all the qualities named. 

As the object of these Lessons is to cultivate the 
senses, to awaken and quicken observation, and lead 
the children to observe carefully everything in nature 
about them that comes within the range of the senses, 
it is important as far as possible to give the children a 
good deal of latitude, and let the discoveries be their 
own, except as they may be guided in part by the 
teacher. So that if they should leave out in their in- 
vestigations some qualities named, and put in others not 
named, it is not a matter of importance, provided they 
are correct as for as they go, and accuracy of observa^ 
Hon is cultivated. It should be added, that as the ideas 
are clearly developed, the giving of tejnns to express 
these ideas is dosigned as a preparation for " Language 
Lessons," and to give the children a vocabulary by 
which they are enabled to express the observations they 
are continually making on the objects of the external 
world. Thus observation and language are both culti- 
vated. 

We cannot do better here than insert the Preface 
to the Fourteenth London Edition. 



PKEFACE 



TO THE FOURTEENTH LONDON EDITION. 



Whe]!T this work was first presented to tlie public, nearly thirty 
years since, the idea of systematically using the material world as 
one of the means of educating the minds of children, was so novel 
and untried a thing in England, that the title " Lessons on Ob- 
jects " excited many a smile, and the success of the little volume 
was deemed to be, at best, very dubious. The plain sound sense 
of the plan, however, soon recommended it to our teachers, and 
they discovered that reading, writing, and arithmetic, do not form 
the sole basis of elementary education, but that the objects and 
actions of every-day life should have a very prominent place in 
their programme. 

In spite of the ominous forebodings which attended the first 
introduction of this little volume, the public has given a decided 
sanction to the system of teaching it, and the degree in which it 
has in consequence modified books for the young and the practice 
of elementary instruction, can scarcely be calculated. 

Successive editions of the Lessons have issued rapidly from the 
press, hitherto without any alteration ; but it is now thought desira- 
ble to profit by the experience gained by the introduction of such 
a course of instruction, and to make a few changes and additions. 
As the work is much used in institutions for the training of Teach- 



6 PREFACE. 

ers, the following account of the plan of the whole course is given 
as a guide in the use of the lessons, and a help in carrying out the 
idea. Those who fall into a mechanical way of giving such, in- 
struction, and do not perceive the principle involved, completely 
defeat its intention, and they had far better keep to old plans and 
old books. 

The work contains progressive series of lessons, the prevailing 
aim being to exercise the faculties of children according to their 
natural order of development, aiming also at their harmonious 
cultivation.* The first series chiefly exercises the perceptive 
faculties, arresting attention on qualities discoverable by the senses ; 
and then furnishing a vocabulary to clothe tlie ideas, and so fixing 
them in the mind, where they will be ready for reproduction when 
the faculty of conception begins to act. The second and third sc- 
ries, in addition to this, exercise the conceptive powers in recalling 
the impressions made upon the senses by external objects, when 
they are removed from observation — also in leading from what has 
become known to what is unknown. In the fourth series, the 
children are exercised in tracing resemblances and differences, in 
drawing comparisons and recognizing analogies, thereby cultivat- 
ing the power of arranging and classifying. 

In the fifth series, the reason and judgment are brought into 
activity ; in tracing the connection between cause and efi"ect, be- 
tween use and adaptation ; language or the power of expression 
is cultivated; the ideas developed in the lessons of the previous 
series are expressed cither in simple words or short sentences ; 
but throughout this series the pupils are required to put down 
all the knowledge they acquire, in the form of consecutive nar- 
rative. This plan promotes fixedness of attention during the giv- 
ing of the lesson, a clear apprehension of facts and truths, and 
facility in arranging and expressing what has been acquired. 

* See " Home Education," p. 198. 



PEKFACE. 



An objection has been made to these Lessons, that they put 
fine words into children's mouths, and give them an air of ped- 
antry — but the evil in reality is the effect of the ignorance that 
has hitherto prevailed as to the properties of the most common 
things by which we are surrounded, and the consequent poverty 
of the poor man's language. When the love of knowledge is 
excited, and the habit of intelligent observation cultivated, words 
and phrases are required to define accurately what so often other- 
wise remains vague impressions on the mind ; consequently a 
more extended vocabulary is requisite, and when no simple and 
common words can be found to express (for instance, such very 
important and common qualities as opacity and transparency), 
the only terms our language affords must be used, and the reproach 
of pedantry be risked. 

Teachers making use of these Lessons are earnestly advised to 
read carefully the introduction to a series before they commence 
the lessons which it contains, and to endeavor to understand, and 
then to act up to the principles and aim set forth. They should 
guard against mere mechanical work, or allowing this in their 
pupils; the latter, after having heard a few names, will often, 
without thought or observation, apply them indiscriminately. 
Neither should the lessons be slavishly followed in all that is set 
down ; they should rather be used as affording suggestive hints ; 
and variety should be sought for — the children often themselves 
indicate what their minds require. 

ELIZABETH MAYO. 

Hampstead^ July^ 1855, 



conte]s:ts. 



Pago 
Hints on Sketch "Writixg 11 



FIRST STEr. 

Introductory ReTnark=< 20 

Lesson 1. A Basket, for its parts 25 

2. A XecdU', for its parts 25 

3. A Penknife, for its parts.. .26 

4. A Chair, for its parts 27 

5. A Watch, for its parts 28 

6. A Pig 29 

7. A Pencil 30 

8. Milk 32 

9. A Feather 33 

10. Loaf Sugar 36 

11. Pint 38 

12. Wool 39 

13. A Piece of Bark 40 

14. A Book 41 

15. A Pin 42 

16. A Cube of AVood 42 

17. A Thimble 43 

18. AKey 43 

19. ACup 44 

20. A Pair of Scissors 45 

21. A Bird 45 

22. All Orange 46 



SECON'D STEP. 

Introductory Remarka 47 

Lesson 1. India Ku'iber 47 

2. A Piece of Sponge 48 

3. Whalebone \ 49 

4. A Piece of Glass 51 

5. A Piece of Slate 52 

6. Leather 53 

7. Loaf Sugar 56 

8. A Piece of Gmn Arabic... 57 

9. A Piece of Sponge 57 

10. Wool 58 

11. Water 58 

12. A Piece of Wax 58 

13. Camphor 59 

14. Bread 59 



Pago 
Lesson 15. Sealing Wax 60 

16. AVhalebone 60 

17. Gii.ger 61 

18. Blotting Paper 61 

19. A Piece of Willow 61 

20. Milk 62 

2L Rice C2 

22. Salt 62 

23. Horn ('.3 

24. Ivory 03 

25. Oak Bark 64 

26. Uncut Lead Pencil 64 

27. A AVax Candle 65 

28. APen 06 



THIRD STEP. 

Introductory Remarks 68 

Lesson 1. C'halk 68 

2. Coal 70 

3. A Match 72 

4. A Rose Leaf 75 

5. Honey Comb 78 

6. A Butterfly 80 

7. Kecapitulaiion 84 

8. Massacre of Children of 

Bethlehem 86 

9. AOuill 89 

10. A Penny 90 

11. Mustard Hoed 91 

12. An Apple 91 

13. Glass of a Watch 92 

14. Brown Sugar 92 

15. An Acorn 93 

16. A Piece of Honey Comb.. 93 

17. Refined Sugar 94 

18. A Cork 95 

19. Glue 95 

20. Pack Thread 96 

21. Honey 96 

22. llutteVcup 96 

23. A Lady Bird 97 

24. An Oyster 98 

,25. A Fir Cone 99 

J26. Fur 190 

27. A Laurel Leaf 100 



CONTENTS. 



Page 
Lesson 23. A Needle loi 

29. A Phint and a Stone 102 

30. A Bell 103 

SI. AWheel.... 104 

32. Camphor 106 

33. Fire 107 

34. An Anchor 109 

35. A Balance IIQ 



FOURTH STEP. 

Introductory Remarks 113 

Lesooa 1. Pepper 114 

2. Niume^ 115 

3. Mace.. 117 

4. Cinnamon lig 

5. Ginger 119 

6. Allspice 120 

7. A Clove 121 

8. Water 124 

9. Oil 126 

10. Beer. . .* 127 

11. Foreign White Wine 12S 

12. Vinegar 129 

13. Ink 129 

14. Milk 130 

Metals. 
General Ob?erv.-xtions on the Motnl8.132 
General Conver.sation on the Metals. 138 
Lesson 15. Gold 139 

16. Silver 143 

17. Quicksilver or Mercury. .145 

18. Lead 149 

19. Copper 152 

20. Iron 15fi 

21. Tin 159 

22. Comparison of Metals... 162 

23. On Metals in General.... 163 

Natural History. 

24. A Bee 168 

25. Hone}' Comb... 170 

, 26. Covering of B'rcU 173 

/27. Adaptntion of Feathers 

to Habits and Wants 
of Birds 175 

28. Beaks of Birds 178 

29. The Mo!e-No. 1 iso 

30. " " " 2 ... 18-' 

31. On Fur— No. 1 '.188 

" " 2 189 

32. The Pig 191 

33. Solubilily 193 

34. On the Senses 199 

35. Feeling or Touch 201 

36. Sight 204 

37. Hearing 205 

38. Smell 200 

39. Taste 207. 

FIFTH STEP. 

Introductory Remarks 208 

1* 



Lesson 1. Glass 209 

2. " 211 

3. " 213 

4. Introduction and Natu- 

ral History of Silk 
Worm 214 

6. Description of Silk Idau- 

ufacture 2I8 

6. Description of various 
fabrics composed of 
Silk 221 

Veg-etable Kingdonx. 

Remarks 223 

Lesson 7. Cork .229 

8. Canes 231 

9. Charcoal 232 

Grain and Pul(^e— Observatioi.s on.. 234 
Lesson 10. Barley and Malt 235 

11. Rye 237 

12. Oats 239 

13. Rice 240 

14. Indian Corn or Maize. . . .242 

15. Wheat 244 

16. Pulse 246 

17. Beans 246 

18. Peas 248 

Fruits and Seeds. 

19. Foreisin Currants 249 

20. The Cocoanut 250 

" 21. Raisins 251 

22. Figs 252 

Vegetalle Secretions. 

23. Camphor 254 

24. Gum Arabic 256 

25. India Rubber orCaout-" 

chouc 2.57 

26. Gutta Percha .260 

27. Oils 262 

28. Suear 966 

29. Coffee 269 

30. Tea 270 

31. Hops 272 

32. Sago 073 

33. Starch ^-^ 

34. Wafers 276 

35. Sealing Wax 277 

36. Paper 073 

37. Nutgalis 281 

Insects. 

Observations on 283 

Lesson 38. Beeswax 285 

39. Grasshopper 287 

Shells. 

Observations on 2S8 

Lesson 40. Snail V.!291 

41. Limpet .293 

42. Periwinkle 293 

43. Whelk 294 

44. Shells of two pieces, or 

bivalves 296 



10 



CONTENTS. 



Paee 
Lesson 45. Miipcle 297 

46. Molhi-r-of- Pearl 298 

Miscellaneous Objects. 

47. Bone? 209 

4g . Fealhcfe 30? 

^"49. Glue 306 

50. llurn 308 

51. Iloi-trc lliiir 310 

52. Ivorv 311 

^-63. Leather 312 

54. Soap 316 

55. Sponge 318 

56. 'I'ortoii-c Shell 319 

57. Whalcljone 321 

58. Coral 323 

59. Wax Candles 325 

60. Shellac. 325 

61. Butter 326 

62. Cheese 327 

63. Felt 328 

Textile or "Woven Fabrics and 
their Materials. 

Lesson 64. Cotton 331 

65. Flax 334 

66. Hemp 336 

67. Silk 339 

68. Wool 341 

Minerals. 

Observadons on 342 

LesBon 69. Lime 346 

70. Alumine or Argil 348 



Pa«e 
Lesson 71. Alum 350 

72. Kmery 352 

73. Ilotteu Stone and Tri- 

poli 353 

74. Pumice Stone 354 

75. Slate 355 

Silicious Minerals. 

Lesson 76. Sand and Sandstone 356 

77. Class 358 

73. Mica 304 

79. Granite 365 

InJ^amma'ble Minerals. 

Lesson 80. Sulphur 366 

81. Plumbago 309 

82. Coal 371 

Saline Minerals. 

83. Salt 374 

84. Soda 379 

Manufactured Articles. 
Lesson 85. Porcelain 381 

86. Needles 882 

87. Nails 385 

88. Knives 387 

89. Scissors 3S9 

90. Steel Pens 390 

91. Lime 391 

92. Braids 393 

93. Pins 394 

94. Pewter 397 

Glossary S99 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 



HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING * 

TnEKE is, perhaps, no practice better adapted to insure 
effective oral teaching, than diligent preparation of the les- 
sons which the teacher intends to give her pupils. The 
recent impulse imparted to popular education, while it has 
directed attention to this important subject, has shown, 
also, how much it has been neglected. This fact, with the 
difficulties attending first attempts at the practice, renders 
it desirable to furnish a few hints to teachers and students, 
which may help them in this branch of their work, and lead 
to its better appreciation. 

' Experience daily proves that an unprepared lesson, or 
what may be termed EXTEiiPORE teaching, is sure to be 
vague, diffuse, and shallow ; and on the other hand, that a 
well-prepared lesson is generally clear, to the point, and 
given with spirit and effect. 

If, with all the advantages of w^ell-disciplined minds, 
those who instruct adults find careful preparation indis- 
pensable, far more so must it be to those who have to 

* Taken from ^^ Notes and Sketches of Zessond.^^ 



12 HINTS ON SKETCH "VVKITING. 

teach cliildren, and who in many cases are very deficient 
in mental culture. 

An accurate knowledge of her subject gives self-posses- 
sion and composure to the teacher; enables her to attend 
to the effect of the lesson on the minds of the children ; 
prevents tedious repetition, and important omissions; and 
gives her such a power over the children as to produce a 
consciousness that the teacher is guiding them, not they 
her. Success is then sure to follow, in winning their atten- 
tion, and eliciting their inquiries and remarks. Moreover, 
the teacher who has diligently acquired, thoroughly di- 
gested, and suitably arranged her matter, will not easily 
be seduced from her subject by incidental association or 
irrelevant questioning; she readily detects the one, and 
discouras-es the other. 

Drawing up sketches also affords much salutary mental 
discipline to the teacher herself. She is practised in ana- 
lyzing subjects of instruction; and then, in reconstructing 
them on the principles of good teaching. She learns to 
view the lesson as a whole, to see the prominent bearings 
of the subject, and to grasp and retain them firmly while 
working them out. 

Again : if a teacher can overcome her natural love of 
ease, and once make up her mind to the practice of prepar- 
ing sketches of lessons, it will not only tend to cultivate 
and discipline her mind, but greatly contribute to the 
pleasure of her daily occupation, economizing at once time 
and labor. She will enjoy the interesting work of deter- 
mining the end to be aimed at, of seeking the means of 
its attainment, and then of watching its success. Further : 



HINTS ox SKETCH WKITEJfG. 13 

if, after having prepared the sketch, the teacher takes care, 
at the close of the day, to enter that sketch in a "book, and 
to notice the omissions made, and other incidents connected 
with the lesson as given, she will at the end of a single 
twelvemonth find her task greatly lightened, and her work 
with every new class of children comparatively easy. Her 
pupils withal, by the help of a systematic and regular 
course of well premeditated and prepared instruction, will 
have their minds properly exercised, and make solid prog- 
ress : the same lesson will not, as is now often the case, 
be repeated within too short a space of time ; and when it 
is again given, it will have the full benefit of the teacher's 
experience and correction. 

It may seem very trite to say that, in order to prepare 
a good sketch of a lesson, a teacher should thoroughly ac- 
quaint herself with the subject, both in itself and in its 
different bearings on relative subjects; yet much vagueness 
on the part of the teacher, and much inattention on the 
part of the children, are owing to the neglect of a truth so 
obvious. Whatever may be the skill of the teacher, with- 
out proper and ample materials, no valuable result will be 
produced. 

In a Scripture lesson, the meaning of the passage select- 
ed should be carefully studied ; the parallel passages and 
texts consulted ; every reference to places, manners, cus- 
toms, &c., clearly understood ; that the teacher may come 
forward with a mind enriched with knowledge, and a heart 
imbued with religious feeling. 

In secular instruction, the best information should be 
obtained from books and actual observation. The points 



14 HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. 

to which to lead the pupils should be determined, whether 
relating to historical facts, to utility, or to the connecting 
dependence of one part of the subject on another. Truth, 
thus acquired by search, will be valued and remembered, 
the harmony and dependence between various truths per- 
ceived, and its existence become a reality to them. 

It is of great importance that teachers should be well 
supplied with concordances, commentaries, and other books 
of reference. The scanty library of many of our teachers, 
while the mechanic is so well supplied with choice tools of 
every kind, is enough to make those deeply mourn who wish 
w^ell to the cause of education. 

The expenditure on this account would be richly repaid 
in the enhanced usefulness of the teacher. 

Assuming that good and sufficient matter has been col- 
lected, the next point is to determine what the special subject^ 
or leading idea^ of the lesson shall be. In order to do this, 
in a Scripture lesson, for example, the teacher should ascer- 
tain the current of thought that runs through the passage, 
the particular truth it teaches, and the practical application 
of which it is susceptible. The advantages of attention to 
this rule in religious instruction, are strikingly expressed by 
Inglis, in the " Sabbath School." He says, " A person, 
when he has settled the subject of his lesson in this way, 
has before his eyes a definite purpose to serve. Instead of 
occupying himself with imconnected exjolanations, pious, 
but pointless reflections, and hap-hazard questions, he tries, 
we shall say, on that day and by that one lesson, to con- 
vince the children — of the value of their souls ; or, of the 
evils of hypocrisy ; or, of the holiness of God ; or, of the 



HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. 15 

happiness of heaven ; something at least tangible and im- 
portant. Instead of wandering at random wherever the 
impulse of association or the answers of the children may- 
lead him, his subject is a helm to his thoughts, and guides 
them steadily to the point. He tries to lodge one or two 
great truths in the minds of his scholars ; and this distinct- 
ness of purpose gives method and clearness to every part 
of the lesson. Both teacher and scholars know where they 
are, and what they are about." 

In preparing the sketch of a lesson on a secular subject, 
the teacher should in like manner, so far as is practicable, 
confine herself to a single point, — or at most, a few points, 
toward which the whole instruction should tend, as rays 
to a centre. Her attention should not be directed to what 
she can or mig^it say on the subject, but to supply what is 
most suited to the children's minds and acquirements, to 
their present and future wants ; and what they can well 
receive and digest. 

Thepla7i, or method of the lesson, is another very im- 
portant consideration. The information v/hich the teacher 
has collected is placed in her own mind in the order in 
which she has acquired it, and not in that in w^hich it 
should be imparted to the children. She has, therefore, to 
endeavor to throw herself into the minds of her pupils ; to 
realize to herself their actual state, and to consider what is 
known, that she may obtain a firm footing from whence to 
proceed to that which is unknown and new. She has also 
to analyze her subject, that she may commence with what 
is simple and elementary, and so to arrange her points that 
she may proceed, by a series of well-graduated steps, to 



IG HINTS ON SKETCU WEITING. 

th<at which is more cliftlciilt, or is complex in its character. 
The ideas presented or gathered from the subject will then 
be received in their right order, their suitable connection 
felt, and the whole will be adjusted satisfactorily in the 
mind. She has, moreover, to determine how she should 
present her subject so as to seize that point of view which 
is most suitable, and likely to excite the greatest degree of 
interest and healthy exercise in her class, — varying this, in 
dilFerent sketches, that she may not continue in a hackneyed 
course, or put the children's minds in trammels. Teachers 
are very apt to adopt some model in their teaching, and to 
wear it threadbare. They, in consequence, lose freedom of 
mind themselves, and their pupils become weary of travel- 
ling always by the same road. It is better to make a few 
mistakes (by which, indeed, they gain experience), than 
lose their energy and independence of thought. 

In drawing out the heads, it is of great importance that 
a proportionate degree of attention be paid to eacli, that 
too much be not given to the subordinate, while the prin- 
cipal are left indefinite and incomplete. Care should also 
be taken that the heads are not too numerous: minute 
divisions impoverish the subject, and diminish its effect. 
They should also be marked by clear, distinct, and broad 
lines. Teachers who endeavor to take a comprehensive 
view of their subject, will succeed far better than those 
who bring to it a critical, fanciful spirit. 

It is hardly necessary to point out that there is a great 
difference between a sketch designed simply for the teach- 
er's use, and one written for the inspection of others ; the 
object of the one is simply to suggest, that of the other to 



HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. 17 

inform. In general, the former contains only the memoranda 
of what the teacher intends to bring before the children, in 
the order it is to be given ; while the latter should contain 
more or less of the teacher's method of giving the lesson, 
and greater fulness of information. 

To a teacher of long experience, who has in her own 
mind a well-acquired method, memoranda may be sufficient ; 
still, method must be attended to in preparation, though it 
may not be essential to exhibit it in notes for her own use. 
She should not only know that a lesson requires reasoning, 
description, illustration, and application, but her own mind 
should be made up as to how a point is to be reasoned out, 
described, illustrated, or applied. The character of the 
matter is important, and the arrangement of it necessary ; 
but the method of presenting it to the children is as impor- 
tant as either ; for, as the late Dr. Mayo has well said, " it 
is as important how children learn, as xohat they learn." 
But for students in a training school, who prepare sketches 
for their own improvement and the inspection of others 
(and it is to this class that these hints may be considered 
more immediately applicable), it is requisite to state in the 
sketch the method as well as the matter of the lesson. In- 
formation may be nicely put together, but more is needed 
to insure a good lesson — the manner in which children's 
minds are to be exercised upon it ; this should, therefore, 
be stated in the sketch. It is easy enough to collect infor- 
mation from books, but not so easy to show how such 
information is to be used as a means of developing the 
minds -of the pupils ; and this is what ought to be done by 
a good teacher. 



18 HESTS OX SKETCH WEITIXG. 

Method and order should by no means be confounded ; 
— order has to do with the arrangement of the information, 
the raw material, as it were, of the lesson ; method, with 
the moulding and fashioning which it undergoes in the 
hands of the teacher, constituting the manner in which it 
should be presented to the children, so as to exercise their 
mental powers at the right time, and in due proportion. 
Order deals, as wx have seen, with the information — the 
subject matter of the lesson ; method, with the mind, the 
development and furnishing of which is the object of the 
instruction. Thus, order is more concerned with the in- 
strument used ; method, with the end to be attained. And 
while order is method to a certain extent, method includes 
more than mere order. 

In addition, therefore, to information and order, a stu- 
dent's sketch should show how it is proposed to introduce 
what is general and abstract ; to help to the conception of 
what is absent ; to illustrate what is not understood ; to re- 
solve the complex into its simple elements ; and to fix in the 
memory that which is received by the understanding. In 
fine, the sketch should contain the skeleton, or outline, of 
the lesson, showing the principal points on which it is in- 
tended to exercise the children's attention, and the manner 
in which the subject should be treated, so as to secure their 
interest, and fix the ideas clearly and thoroughly in their 
minds. 

A teacher, in the selection of her subject, may have a 
general aim ; thus, in a Bible lesson, to produce a religious 
impression ; in a lesson on an object, to call out observation ; 
in a lesson on number, to cultivate accuracy and draw forth 



HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. 19 

power ; in a lesson on an animal, to exhibit the wisdom and 
goodness displayed in its structure, and thus to draw forth 
admiration and love toward the Divine Creator. But, in 
the treatment of the particular lesson, there should, we 
repeat, be one, or at most two or three prominent points 
put down in the sketch, which should be natural, simple, 
and striking ; it should be the special aim of the teacher to 
work them out. The sketch should declare the plan by 
which the children are to be conducted to these points : 
thus, in a lesson on an object, it should show how any par- 
ticular idea is to be developed, or how the children are to 
be led to discover the fitness of the object for its use ; in a 
lesson in natural history, how an animal's organization is 
adapted to its habits ; on number, by what steps the chil- 
dren are to be induced to draw conclusions for themselves ; 
in a Bible lesson, how it is purposed to produce an impres- 
sion, and to bring a truth or precept within the sphere of 
the children's perception and self-application. 

With respect to the details of information, a sketch, 
whether drawn up by a teacher for her own use in the 
school, or by a student in training,* should contain what 
may be called suggestive hints of the subject of the lesson. 
It should equally avoid detailed information, on the one 
hand ; and on the other, mere general notices, such as con- 
stitute a table of contents, or heading of a chapter. In the 
former case the document would present the appearance of 
a depository of information, rather than a sketch ; and the 

* For examples of these two kinds of sketches, or rather of memo- 
randa and sketch, see the memoranda and the sketch for lessons on the 
Mole, p. , Fourth Step. 



20 HINTS ON SKETCH WKITING. 

teacher would herself be in danger of presenting it in a 
book form, — of becoming a lecturer instead of a teacher ; 
while a sketch, if of too general a character, would cither 
do injustice to the knowledge of the teacher, or produce a 
vague and superficial lesson. 

The general style of a sketch should be pithy, pointed, 
and condensed, in order that its different parts may catch 
the eye. To effect this, the use of the ellipsis will con- 
tribute. Questions may also often be used in a sketch with 
effect ; they aid in giving point and expression, and indicate 
method in the very shortest way. But it requires consider- 
able judgment and experience to frame questions j^roperly 
for such a purpose, and with due regard to the character 
of a sketch, avoiding, on the one hand, the minuteness re- 
quired in a lesson, and on the other, the generality of mere 
heads. The following example is faulty, inasmuch as the 
questions change by their directness and specialty the char- 
acter of a sketch ; while from their paucity they fail as to 
a lesson : — " I will question the children on the most im- 
portant points in the narrative as I proceed ; as, whom 
Abraham sent to fetch Rebecca ? at what place the servant 
stopped ? who came to the well while he was there ? how 
did Rebecca treat him ? what disposition did she manifest?" 
Compare this with the following extract from a sketch on 
" the Goodness of God, shown in the different Seasons of 
the Year : " — " Draw from the children a description of 
this season (winter). What do they observe out of doors ? 
trees without leaves, gardens without flowers, frost, snow, 
wind, fogs, clouds, &c. How do they feel ? What do they 
like to have on ? What difference do they find indoors? — 



HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. 21 

fires required^ windows shut, &c." Here questions are 
used to elicit what may be called classes of ansioers, to 
form connecting links, and also to indicate the method of 
the teacher ; not one of them is of that isolated or detailed 
character which marks each question in the first extract. 

The title of the lesson should always be stated in a clear, 
bold hand, at the top of the sketch ; next, the class of chil- 
dren for whom it is prepared, as this information is neces- 
sary to the determining the suitability in the mode of 
treating the subject; then, the point of view, or the ideas 
to be developed : but when the point is contained in the 
title of the lesson, as in a lesson on grammar or number, it 
should not be repeated. It also gives great neatness to a 
sketch to mark the heads in Roman numerals, and the sub- 
divisions in the Arabic. A margin should be left, and the 
heads or leading ideas stated therein ; this, besides improv- 
ing the appearance of the sketch, enables both the teacher 
-aad others to see at a glance the matter and order of the 
lesson. A legible handwriting and neatness of execution 
should by no means be neglected in a sketch. These minor 
points may appear trivial, but they are not unimportant ; 
attention to them will promote self possession when giving 
the lesson, and tend to form beneficial habits. 



FIKST STEP. 

INTRODUCTORY REMAI^KS FOR THE DIRECTION OF TUE 

TEACHER. 

To lead children to observe with attention the objects 
which surround them, and then to describe with accuracy 
the impressions they convey, appears to be the first step in 
the business of education. 

As the period of childhood is characterized by the cease- 
less activity of the perceptive faculties, it is clear that with 
them intellectual education should commence. The devel- 
opment of these powers gives animation to the dull, and 
precision to the lively, w^hile it promotes that clearness of 
apprehension which is the solid basis of after attainment, 
and without which our judgments are unsound, and our 
reasonings inconclusive. As the si)here of observation is 
enlarged, and the pages of history or the fields of science 
are exj^lored, the mind, accustomed to accurate investiga- 
tion, will not rest content with less than satisfactory evi- 
dence, either in morals or in science. 

The present work consists of five series of lessons, each 
of which increases in difficulty as the pupil advances. The 
order observed in them is the result of some experience, 



INTRODUCTORY REAIARKS. 23 

and of several trials, which have produced a strong convic- 
tion of the importance and value of a methodical arrange- 
ment, and of a very gradual ^progression. It is therefore 
recommended that no step in the course should be alto- 
gether omitted, though the age and talents of the children 
must regulate the time bestowed on each. 

It is very important, that in all instruction, some definite 
object should be proposed, and that every step should have 
a tendency toward the end in view. Thus in the series 
under consideration, the development of the j)erceptive 
faculties is aimed at, and each sense is called into action, 
that all may be strengthened by exercise, and their judg- 
ments corrected. By linking also the ideas gained to ap- 
propriate words, a ready command of language may be 
acquired. 

A few lessons fully drawn out are given in each step, as 
a specimen of the manner in which the others should be 
given. It would have extended the volume to an unneces- 
sary length, and filled it with needless repetitions, had each 
been made out with equal minuteness. Information is not 
given in the preliminary set, as the end proposed is to ex- 
cite the mental powers of the children to activity, and not 
to furnish them with knowled2:e. 

It may perhaps be necessary to guard against the error 
of expecting, in a work like the present, anything more 
than hints as to the mode of arranging and imparting 
knowledge. Teachers ought to be well informed, in order 
to meet the inquiries which the active minds of children 
continually suggest. Their questions will generally point 
out the best mode of treating a subject, or of leading them 



24 FIRST STEP. 

to tlie discovery of any truth, rrecise, unvarying rules may 
be laid down for mechanical operations ; but mind alone can 
act upon mind, and bring it into vigorous exercise ; and all 
instruction must be dry and uninteresting, which has not 
undergone some modification from the person by whom it 
is communicated. 

There are several faults into which teachers are likely 
to fall ; one is that of telling too much, for though the in- 
formation may be received with pleasure, and appear to 
profit, yet under such a mode of instruction, the pupils' 
minds remain almost passive, and they acquire a habit of 
receiving impressions from others, at a time when they 
ought to be gaining mental power by the exertion of their 
own faculties. Another mistake is that of giving a term 
before the pupil has felt his want of it.* When the idea 
of any quality has been formed in his mind, without his 
being able to express it, the name given under such circum- 
stances fixes it on the memory : thus, when a child observes 
that whalebone, after having been bent, returns to its orig- 
inal position, he may be told that this property which he 
has discovered is called elastic. 

In the First Step the children are led to discern and 
name the several parts of an object, as also to the distinct 
perception of some of the more obvious qualities, without 

* The writer desires particularly to enforce this remark, having in one 
or two instances seen the lessons altogether misused. Thus the qualities 
were told, and the explanation of the terms given, instead of the object 
being presented to the children that they might make their own observa- 
tions upon it, and learn from the teacher how to express qualities clearly 
discerned by them, although unknown by name. 



A BASELET, FOK ITS PAKTS. 25 

the communication of a term by which to express such per- 
ception, except in those cases where the term is familiar. 

LESSOR I. 

A BASKET, FOR ITS PAKTS. 

Require the children to name the object, and to tell its 
use — as to hold potatoes, peas, bread, tea, sugar, books, 
work, paper, &c. ; and then to point out its parts, as the lid, 
the handles, the sides, the bottom, the inside, the outside, 
and the edges ; to describe the use of the lid — to cover the 
things contained in the basket, and to prevent them being 
seen ; and to tell also the use of the sides and of the bot- 
tom. What would happen if the basket had no lid ? The 
things it contained would be seen, and the dust would get 
in. What would happen if it had no handle ? It could not 
be conveniently held. Show me how you would be obliged 
to hold it if it had no handle. Would you like to have to 
hold it in that way ? What would happen if there were no 
sides to the basket ? The things it contained would fall 
out sidewise. What V\^ould happen if there were no bottom 
to the basket ? They would fall downward, nor would the 
basket stand safely. Then make the children repeat to- 
gether the names of the various parts of a basket. " The 
basket has a lid, a handle," &c. 

LESSON 11. 

A NEEDLE, FOR ITS PARTS. 

The children to give the name, and tell how the nee- 
dle is used : What persons use needles ? What 7nen use 



26 FIRST STEP. — LESSON III. 

them? Desire a child to touch some part of the needle; 
ask the name of that part of it, and let all repeat the word 
together. When all the parts have been discovered, the 
children repeat together — " A needle has an eye, a point, 
and a shank." Question them as to where the eye is, 
where the point, and where the shank. All repeat : " The 
eye is at one end of the needle, the point is at the other 
end of it, and the shank is between the eye and the point." 
Ask the use of the eye, and what is put through it. Thread, 
cotton, silk, or worsted. What is the act of putting any 
one of these through the eye of the needle called ? What 
is the use of the point ? what should the point be ? When 
is a needle a bad one ? When the point is blunt. What 
is the use of the shank? It gives a part by which to hold 
the needle, and also to hold the stitches we take up. 
Conclude by simultaneous recapitulation of the parts of a 
needle : " A needle has," &c. 

LESSON III. 

A PENKNIFE, FOR ITS PARTS. 

The teacher calls upon the children to name the object, 
and then desires a child to point to some part of the knife ; 
suj^posing this to be the blade, the children should learn the 
name ; if they do not know it, the letter B is then written 
on the slate, and the children taught to understand that B 
stands for the word blade; then they should be required 
to point to the other parts of the knife, as the handle, the 
rivets, &c., and to tell their names, or to learn them if 
they do not know thom; repeating the names of the 



A CHAIR, FOR ITS PARTS. 2*7 

several parts of the knife, as indicated by the letters on 
the slate. 

The teacher is next to touch the different parts of the 
knife, and as this is done to require the children to give the 
name of each part, as the edge of the blade, the point, the 
handle, the rivets, the hinge, &c. 

Holding up the knife, the teacher then asks the children 
how the blade is placed with respect to the handle ? v/hether 
it is always in the same position ? how it is placed when the 
knife is used ? and how when it is put into the pocket ? 
where the point is ? and where the rivets, &g. ? how many 
parts has the knife ? the children now to refer to the slate, 
and to mention, as they count the number, what each let- 
ter stands for. The use of the knife might be here spoken 
of, and when a penknife is used in preference to any other 
knife ; have they ever seen any person make a pen with 
such a knife as that before them ? 

The object is now to be withdrawn, and the teacher is 
to desire the children to name the parts of it from memory, 
one child only being at first allowed to speak, and then all : 
" The knife has a blade, — the knife has a handle," &c. If 
they mistake, the board is to be referred to, and the teacher 
is to question them as to what each letter stands for. They 
might also describe the position of the parts, first one of 
them doing so, and then, simultaneously, all. 

LESSON IV. 

A CHAIR, FOR ITS PARTS. 

The children to name the object, then to tell its use, — 
to sit on ; then to point out its parts, as the back, the seat, 



28 FIRST STEP. LESSON IV. 

the legs, and the bars ; then to tell the use of the several 
parts, as the back, for the sitter to lean against ; of the seat, 
for him to sit on ; of the legs, to support the chair ; of the 
cross-bars, to give strength and firmness to the whole. 
What would be the consequence had the chair no back ? 
We could not so well rest on it when tired. Of its having 
no seat ? There would be nothing to sit upon. Of its 
having no legs? The seat v/ould be on the floor. What 
would happen were there no bars ? The chair would soon 
fall to pieces. Of which of the parts is there one only ? 
Of the seat and of the back. How many legs are there? 
Why four legs ? Hov^ many bars are there ? Yv^hich parts 
are upright? Which parts are level? Repeat together 
the names of the several parts of a chair. 

LESSON V. 

A WATCH, FOR ITS PARTS. 

The teacher, holding up a watch, asks. What is this ? 
It is a watch. Now look well at it, and tell me the name 
of some part of it. The hands. Yes. Tell me another 
part. The glass. All repeat, — " The watch has hands and 
it has a glass." Find another part. The rim. Is there 
any part of the watch which you cannot see when I hold it 
up ? Yes, the inside. If you will think a little you will be 
able to tell me some other part. The outside. All repeat, 
"The watch has an outside and an inside." You have told 
me the watch has hands ; where do they meet ? In the 
middle. In the middle of what ? In the middle of the 
face. In telling me this you have mentioned two other 



THE PIG. 29 

parts of the -watcli. The watch has a face, and there is a 
small hole in the middle of it. Now tell me how many 
hands the watch has ? Two. Are they alike ? No. How 
are they unlike ? One of them is long, the other is short. 
Say, "The watch has two hands, one of them long and the 
other short." Can you find out anything more about the 
face ? There are little figures round the edge of it. Re- 
peat together, " The face has figures round it." Tell me 
some other part which you have named ? The glass. How 
many glasses has the watch ? Only one. And what does 
th glass cover ? It covers the face. Say, " The watch 
has a glass, which covers the face." 

Well, now you have been looking at the watch, and 
have told me several parts of it which you have found out 
by looking at it, who among you can tell me when a watch 
is near, even if it be not in sight ? I can. It ticks. What 
is the use of a watch ? It tells us what time it is. Yes, 
and there is something else which tells the time ; what is 
it ? A clock. Now let us sing about the clock : 

" The neat little clock, in the corner it stands." 



LESSON VI. 

THE PIG. 

I. Show the children the picture of a pig. Let them 
name and point to all its parts ; as the head, eyes, ears, nose, 
mouth, neck, legs, tail, &c. Tell them that the nose and 
mouth together are called the snout. Ask whether they 
have seen a pig. If like the one before them. The difier- 



30 FIRST STEP. — LESSON VII. 

ence. What they have seen pigs doing ? Their color, 
shape, &c. Where pigs live ? If they have ever seen a 
sty ? What they eat out of? &c., &c. Thus leading them 
to talk familiarly and to say all they can about pigs. 

II. Speak of the use of the pig to man. What it's flesh 
is called ? If they have ever tasted it ? 

III. Who made the pig ? How we should feel toward 
God, who has given us this useful animal. How it should 
be treated ; giving some examples which have come under 
their notice of cruelty to the pig ; appealing to the children 
if this conduct is right, or pleasing to God. How God 
would regard such children. How all animals which God 
has made should be treated, and if they would like to be 
treated cruelly themselves. By these and similar questions 
exciting humane feelings toward animals. 

LESSON VII. , 

A PENCIL, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF ITS PARTS AND 
THEIR USES. 

The children repeat together : This is a pencil. Who 
can tell the use of a pencil ? It is used for writing. What 
do you mean by writing ? Look at me. The teacher 
makes some unmeaning marks on paper, and asks : Is this 
writing? ISTo. The teacher next forms some letters or 
words, on the board, and asks : Is this writing ? Yes, it is. 
ISTow you can tell me when we write with a pencil When 
we use it to make Avords. Do any of you know any other 
use of a pencil ? Some child will perhaps say : It is used 



A PENCIL. 31 

to draw with. Repeat together : " A pencil is used to 
write with and to draw withP If you wished to Avrite or 
draw, could you do so if you had a pencil alone, and 
nothing more ? No. Right ; you must have paper, or 
something to write or draw upon. Now look well at the 
pencil, and tell me if it is everywhere alike, as this piece 
of chalk is ? What can any of you see ? The wood of 
the pencil. What more ? The lead of it. The wood is 
not then the whole of the pencil ? what is it ? It is a part 
of it. And what is the lead ? The lead is also a part of 
the pencil. What can you say the pencil has? The 
pencil has parts. Try and find some other parts. Call 
a child to touch some part of the pencil ; he will most 
likely touch the ends ; the children may not know how 
to call them ; they may be told they are the ends of the 
pencil, and then repeat together: The pencil has ends. 
How many ends has a pencil? Two. Before any one 
can use the pencil for writing, what must be done to 
one of the ends? It must be cut. What do we form 
when we cut it? We form a point. What more do 
you see on the pencil? Some words. That is the 
maker's name. Now repeat together the parts a pen- 
cil has. A pencil has wood, &c. What is the use of 
the lead? What would be the consequence if there 
were no lead in the pencil? What is the use of the 
wood ? What do you think would be the consequence 
if the pencil were all lead? Yes; one disadvantage 
would be that it would blacken our fingers. Now tell 
me where the lead is. Repeat together : " The lead 
runs along the middle of the iyenciV^ Where is 



32 FIRST STEP. LESSON VIII. 

the "Nvood ? Repeat together : " The laood is round the 
lead?'' Where is the point ? Kepeat together : " The 
point is at one end of the ^:)e^^c^7." 



LESSON VIII. 

MILK. 

What is this in the glass ? Milk. Where do we get 
milk ? It comes from the cow. How can you tell that this 
is milk and not water ? By its being white. Is there any 
other reason for your saying that it is not water ? We 
cannot see through it. Repeat together : " MilJc is white, 
and we cannot see through it.'''' Taste it. It is very nice. 
What kind of taste has it ? It has a sweet taste. Repeat : 
" 3Illk has a nice sweet taste.'''' You have told me in what 
it is unlike water, now find out something in which it is 
like water ; now look at me (the teacher pours out a little 
of the milk in drops) ; it will wet anything ; it forms itself 
in drops. We call those things which make others wet, and 
form themselves into drops, liquids. What then is milk? 
Milk is a liquid. Tell me some other liquids. Water, beer, 
&c. What use do we make of milk ? We drink it. Why 
are little children fed upon milk? To make them grow. 
Yes ; and because it makes them grow it is said to be 
nourishing. Tell me some other things that are nour- 
ishing. 

Do you know any other animal besides the cow that 
gives milk ? Yes, the ass and the goat. I think you can 
all tell me why God gave animals milk. Yes, He gives it 



A FEATHER. 83 

to them to be food for their young. Why is milk so suit- 
able for the food of young animals ? Because it is so nour- 
ishing. How kind it is in God to give animals such nice 
nourishing food for their young, to keep the little thmgs 
alive till they have teeth to bite the grass ! What is the 
young of the cow called ? A calf. Now repeat all you 
know about milk. " 3£Ulc comes from the coio. God gives 
it to the coio to feed the young calf when it has 7iot teeth 
to bite the grass. 3fil/c is ichite, and ice cannot see through 
it; it tastes nice and sweet; it is a liquid^ a?id makes very 
nourishing food. 

LESSON IX. 

A FEATHEK. 

What is this ? A feather. Whence does it come ? It 
comes from off a bird. How do you think a bird would 
feel without its feathers? Very cold. Of what use then 
are feathers to birds ? They keep them warm. What do 
we wear to keep us warm ? Coats, frocks, aprons, &c. Do 
you know one word by which to speak of all these to- 
gether ? Yes ; clothing. Yes, and feathers are the cloth- 
ing of Urds. Now look at this feather (the teacher throws 
it up in the air) ; what do you see ? It flies about. If I 
throw this cent in the air, will it do the same? No, 
.teacher, it Avill fall to the ground at once. Why does 
the feather float in the air, and the cent fall to the 
ground? Because the feather is light, and the cent- 
is heavy. I wish some of the older children to tell me 
why a covering so light as feathers is best suited to birds ? 
2M^ 



34 FIRST STEP. — LESSON IX. 

Because they have to fly in the air. Yes ; and if they had 
very heavy clothing they would fall doicn. We see then 
that the great God who is in heaven cares even for the 
little birds. He tells us in His Holy Word, that not even a 
sparrow falls to the ground without His knowing it ; and 
if He observes all that the little birds *do, and takes such 
care of them, do you think He will ever forget you or me ? 
Oh no, dear children ! He knows everything you do, and 
everything that happens to you ; and, in the same chapter 
of the Bible in which He speaks of His care of the sparrows, 
He says, much more will he take care of His children ; you 
shall learn this verse, and I hope, when you see the little 
birds flying about so happily, you will remember that God, 
who takes such care of them, will never forget you. 

But now examine the feather, and tell me what colors you 
see in it. Part of it is ichite^ and part of it is brown. Here 
is another feather ; what color is it ? It is green. What 
then do you perceive as to the color of feathers. They 
differ. You may say, then, feathers are of different colors. 
Pass the feather round, and try to find out more about it. 
It is soft. Is every part of the feather soft ? IN'o, not the 
part in the middle. And what of that ? It is hard. That 
hard part of the feather is called the shaft. What can you 
say of the shaft ? It is hard. All repeat : the shaft of the 
feather is hard. What other difference is there between 
the shaft of the feather and the downy part of it ? '^ The 
sliaft shines, and the downy part does not. What do you 
call things that shine ? Bright. And things that do not 

* As feathers vary very much, the qualities will, of course, depend 
upon the pirticular ppccimeu chosen for the lesson. 



A FEATHER. 35 

shine ? BulL Then the shaft of the feather is hright^ and 
the clown is dull. What other difference do you perceive? 
Feel the feather. We cannot easily bend the shaft. Do 
any of you know what we call things that cannot be easily 
bent ? I think you must have heard ; but attend, and try 
and remember what I say to you : things that cannot easily 
be bent are said to be stiff. Tell me some things that are 
stiff? Wood, slate. And what can you say of the shaft of 
the feather ? It is stiff. Yes, the shaft is stiffs you cannot 
easily lend it ; but the down you can easily bend. Hold up 
the feather to the light ; we can see through it. Can you 
see through the feather itself? No, but between the 
parts of it. But if I put all the parts of the feather 
close together, what do you find then ? We cannot see 
through it. 

And now you shall tell me what are the uses of feathers? 
They are used for beds. Why do they make nice beds ? 
Because they are soft. Why are they a suitable clothing 
for birds ? Because they are light. Feathers then are 
useful to us because they are soft y they are useful to birds 
because they are lights and keep them warm. Did you 
ever see a slender piece of wood, pointed at one end, with 
three feathers fastened on the other end ? Yes, teacher. 
What is it called? An arrow. Why were the feathers 
put on the wood ? To make the arrow fly in a straight 
line. 

Well ; you shall now repeat all that you have said about 
feathers: ^'' Feathers are the clothing of birds ; Godjias 
given birds a very light clothing^ that they may the more 
easily fly in the air / God takes care of the birds, mtcch 



36 FIRST STEP. — LESSON X. 

more will He take care of us ; feathers are of various col- 
ors ; the shaft of the feather is hard, bright, and stiff; 
the downy part is soft and dull, a7idioe can easily lend it ; 
ice caniiot see through the feather ; feathers are used for 
stuffing beds, because they are soft, and for arrows, to make 
them fly in a straight U7ieP 



LESSON X. 

LOAF SUGAK. 

You can all tell me what this is. Yes. It is sugar. 
What kind of sugar is it ? White sugar. Those who can 
tell me what sugar is, hold up their hands. You remember 
where the lead comes from ? Out of the earth. And the 
feather ? From off the bird. Now I will tell you about 
sugar; it is made from the juice that is pressed out of the 
stem of a plant. Here is the picture of the plant. The 
plant is called the sugarcane, and a very nice juice, which 
contains the sugar, is pressed out from the stem. Look at 
the people in this picture. Are they like me ? No, teach- 
er, they are very dark. Some day we will talk about the 
countries in which the sugar-cane grows, and where the 
dark-colored people live. Now, you must tell me all you 
can yourselves find out about the sugar. It is sioeet. You 
all know that. Repeat : " Sugar is S2oeet.^^ Look, I put a 
piece of the sugar into some water; what do you perceive? 
It dissolves. Look again : I hold it to the flame of the 
candle. It melts. What then can you say of sugar ? It 
dissolves in water and it melts in fire. Repeat : " Sugar 



LOAF SUGAK. 37 

dissolves in water and melts in fire.'''* * Kow in what do 
lead and sugar differ ? They both melt in fire, but the 
sugar alone dissolves in water. E"ow look at the sugar, 
and feel of it, and tell me anything you find out. It is 
hard. What more? It is white. Is all sugar white? 
No, some sugar is brown. Look at this piece of sugar 
again. It is bright. Is it bright in the same way that lead 
is bright ? No, little bits of the sugar are bright. Yes, it 
appears like a number of little bright sparks ; it is said to 
be sparTd'mg. What can you say of sugar ? It is spark- 
ling. Repeat together: " White sugar is sparkling P 
Well, try again. It is in a lump. Is all sugar the same? 
No, brown sugar is not in a lump as this is. Did you ever 
see an uncut piece of white sugar in a grocer's shop? 
What was its shape ? Bound. Was it all the way up the 
same size ? No, it became smaller and smaller, till it end- 
ed in a rounded point. What is the use of sugar ? To 
sweeten tea. What more? To sweeten puddings; to 
sweeten our food. Now repeat the heads of the lesson; 
"Sugar is made from the juice ^i sugar-cane ; it isverg 
sweet ; it melts in fire and dissolves in water. Loaf sugar 
is white^ hard^ and sparkling / sugar is used to sweeten 
our food.'*'* 

* The teacher should have a clear perception of the difference be- 
tween the melting or fusion of a solid substance and the dissolving of 
substances. 



38 FIRST STEP. — LESSON XI. 

LESSON XL 

FLINT. 

What is this ? A flint. What is a flint ? A sort of 
stone. Where do we find stones ? In the earth. Look 
at it; what can you say of it? It is hlack. The teacher 
holds up the flint. What do you all say of the color of the 
flint ? It is black. Repeat together : " The fiint is 
hlackP What more do you see ? It shines. All of you 
repeat : " The flint shinesJ^^ Do you think a piece of flint 
would make a good window ? No. Why not ? We 
could not see through it. All repeat : " We cannot see 
through flint^'' Tell me some other things through which 
you cannot see. The walls, the slates, &c. Now pass the 
flint round and feel of it. What now can you say of it ? 
It is hard ; it is cold. Repeat together : " The flint is hard 
and coldP What more do you observe ? It is smooth. 
Repeat : " The flint is smooth:'' Feel the edges. They 
are sharp. Repeat : " The edges of the flint are sharp^"* 
The teacher strikes a piece of flint and a i^iece of steel to- 
gether. What am I doing ? Striking the flint and steel 
together. What do you see ? Sparks of fire. What pro^ 
duced the sparks? The striking the flint and steel to- 
gether. Repeat together : '•'•Flint strikes flre with steelP 

Now repeat all that has been said about flint : " Flint 
is a stone ^ it comes out of the earth j it is black ^ ice 
cannot see through it / lohen ice touch it we feel that it is 
cold, hard, smooth, and sharp at the edges / a?id it is used 
to strike flre:"* 



WOOL. 39 

LESSON xn. 

WOOL. 

What is this ? Wool. Where does wool come from ? 
It comes from off the sheep's back. What is a sheep ? An 
animal. What is wool then ? Part of an animal. Of 
what use is the wool to the sheep ? It keeps it warm. 
Can the sheep make its own wool ? No. Who gave the 
little sheep this warm clothing ? God. Yes, God gave the 
sheep this warm clothing, because it could not make cloth- 
ing for itself 

Now pass this wool round the class : look at it, and feel 
it, and tell me what you can find out about it. It is soft. 
Repeat : " Wool is sofV It is all hairs. Yes. Repeat 
then : " Wool is formed of hairs.^'' Feel it again. It is 
dry. Repeat : " Wool is dry?'' What more ? It is warm. 
Does it feel warm, as fire does ? No. What do you mean 
then ? That anything made of wool keeps us warm. Re- 
peat : " Wool keeps us warmP Yes, it keeps us warm, be- 
cause it prevents the warmth of our bodies from passing 
away from us. 

Who can tell me what wool is used for? To make 
stockings and flannel. What do you call that very thick 
flannel which you have on your beds ? Blanket. Do you 
know any kind of clothes which are made of wool. Yes, 
our fathers' coats. And what have some persons on their 
floors to keep their feet warm? Carpets. Carpets are 
made of wool. 

Now repeat all you have said of wool : " Wool comes 



40 FIEST STEP. — LESSON XIII. 

from off the sheep* s hack ; it is the clothing which God 
gives the sheep to keep it warm y wool is soft^ dry^ and made 
up of hairs y it keeps us loarm y it is made into stockingsy 
flannel^ blankets^ and carpetsP 

LESSON XIII. 

A PIECE OP BAEK. 

"What is this? A piece of bark. All look at it. 
Where do we find bark? On trees. On what part of 
trees ? On the stem. On which part of the stem? Look 
and see. (The teacher brings in a piece of the stem of a 
tree on which the bark still remains.) On the outside. 
Repeat together : " Bark is the outer part of the stems of 
treesP — 

Look at the bark ; what do you perceive ? It is hroimi. 
Kepeat : " Bark is hroion?'* Look again ; is it like glass ? 
No, we cannot see through it. What can you say of it 
then? We cannot see through bark. Compare it with 
glass. It does not shine. When anything does not shine 
at all, it is said to be dull ; what is the bark? It is dull. 
Repeat : " The hark is dulV* Show me some things in the 
room that are dull. Now feel of the bark. It is rough. 
And what more? It is dry. Now look (the teacher 
separates the fibres), it has strings or hairs. These strings 
or hairs are called fihres^ and we say the bark is fibrous. 
Repeat : " The bark is fibrous.'''' Some plants have very 
fibrous stems, and are very useful to us on this account ; 
here are some of the fibres of hemp ; and here are some 
of flax, which suppUes much of our clothing. I think you 



A BOOK. 



41 



can find out something more if you feel the bark again. 
Yes ; it is hard. 

Now repeat all you have said : " Bark is the outside 
covering of the stems of trees / it is brown / loe cannot see 
through it / it is roughs dull^ dry^ hard^ and fibrous P 

lesso:n^ XIV. 



A BOOK. 

In the following lessons, terms expressing qualities that 
may be developed are given. The lessons may be carried 
out on the same general plan as the preceding. In no case 
should a term be given before the idea is developed, and 
the necessity for it is felt. Where the quality is not appa- 
rent to the senses, it must be brought out by experiment. 



Parts. 



The outside, 
inside, 
edges, 
corners, 
binding. 



paper. 

back. 

sides. 

top. 

bottom. 

title page. 

preface. 

introduction. 

contents. 

end. 



The leaves, 
pages, 
margin, 
beginning, 
type, 
letters, 
numbers, 
stops. 
words, 
sentences, 
syllables, 
letterino;, 
stitching, 
lines, 
paragraphs. 



42 FIRST STEP. — LESSON XV. 

The children should determine the position of the dif- 
ferent parts, their form and uses. 





LESSON XV. 




A PIN. 


Parts. 


Qualities. 


The head. 


It is hard. 


shank. 


white. 


point. 


bright. 




solid. 




smooth. 




The head is round. 




The point is sharp. 




The shank is straight. 




tapering. 



Use, — ^To keep together for a time parts of dress, &c. 
LESSON XVI. 

A CUBE OP WOOD. 

The cube will convey to the children a good idea of a 
surface ; but as some confusion is likely to arise in their 
minds, when they are informed that what bounds every 
part of an object, and can be felt or seen, is the surface, 
and then, when they find that the surface is divided into 
parts, to be told that these divisions are called surfaces, it 
is therefore necessary to give them a name for the divisions 
of the surface — that of faces has been adopted. A sphere 
may be shown as an example of an undivided surface, and 
by comparing it with the cube, a clear idea of what is meant 
by surface and faces may be elicited. 





A THIMRLE. 




Parts. 






Qualities. 


Th'e surface. 




It 


is hard. 


faces. 






light. 


edges. 






solid. 


corners. 






brown. 

smooth. 

dull. 

burns with a flame, 




Thefai 


ces are flat. 



43 



square. 
The edges are straight. 
The corners are sharp. 

LESSON XVII. 





A THIMBLE. 




Parts. 




Qualities.. 


The inside. 


It 


is hollow. 


outside. 




silver. 


top. 




full of little holes^ 


bottom. 




white. 


rim. 




bright. 


border. 




hard, 
curved. 




The inside 


is smooth. 




The outside 


is rough. 



Use. — ^To preserve the middle finger from being pricked 
in working. 





LESSON XYin. 




A KEY. 


Parts. 


Qualities. 


The ring. 


It is hard. 


barrel. 


steel. 



44 



FIRST STEP. — ^LESSON XVIII. 



Parts. 



The wards, 
grooves, 
edges, 
surface, 
corners. 



Qualities, 

The bright, 
smooth, 
stiff. 

liable to rust. 
• Part of the barrel is hollow. 
The barrel is in the form of a cylinder 
The ring is curved. 



Places locked up hy a hey. — ^Doors, gates, boxes, 
desks, portmanteaus, trunks, portfolios, tea chests, closets, 
drawers, cabinets, &c. 

LESSON XIX. 





A CUP. 




Parts. 






Qualities. 


The bowl. 




It 


is hollow. 


handle. 






hard. 


upper rim. 






curved. 


lower rim. 






glossy. 


bottom. 






smooth. 


inside. 






glazed. 


outside.* 






thin. 


edges. 


The 


rim is circular. 


surface. 









* From the examination of such an object as a cup, glass, any vessel, 
or a box, children may be led to discriminate clearly the difference be- 
tween outside and surface, and to see that the former is the opposite to 
the inside, while the latter is the boundary of every part of an object. 



A PAIR OF SCISSORS. 



45 





LESSON XX. 


A 


PAIR OF SCISSORS. 


Parts. 


Qualities. 


The limbs. 


It is steel. 


bows. 


bright. 


blades. 


hard. 


shanks. 


cold. 


rivets. 


solid. 


pivot. 


The blades are pointed 


points. 


One face is flat. 


surface. 


The other curved. 


faces. 


The front edge sharp. 




The back blunt. 




The bows are curved. 



The children should name the kind of materials which 
scissors will cut, and point out the different manner in 
which knives and scissors cut. 

LESSON XXL 



Parts, 


A BIRD. 




The head. ' 
body, 
wings, 
legs, 
beak. 


Principal 
parts. 


The qualities would 
depend on the kind 
of bird chosen for 
the lesson. 


eyes. 

nostrils. 

neck. 







46 



riEST STEP. — LESSON XXII. 



Parts. 


Parts. 


The feathers. 


The skin. 


bones. 


feet. 


claws. 


joints. 




LESSON^ XXII. 



H 



AN OEANGE. 

Parts. Qualities. 

The peel. It is reddish yellow, or 

rind of the peel. * orange color, 

white of the peel. in the form of a ball. 



juice. 




rough on the outside, 


pulp. 


The pulp 


is juicy. 


seeds. 




soft. 


eye. 




cooling. 


divisions. 




sw^eet when ripe. 


membrane. 




vegetable. 


inside. 




solid. 


outside. 


It has 


a sweet smell. 


surface. 




- 



A PIECE OF INDIA EUBBEK. 47 



SECOND STEP. 

In this Step the children continue to be exercised on 
the more obvious qualities, and the specific term by which 
to express the quality is given. 

LESSON I. 

A PIECE OF INDIA KUBBER, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF ONE 
KIND OF ELASTICITY. 

Present the India rubber, and ask its name; then call a 
child to try and see what he can do to it. He can bend it 
and stretch it. Then call the children's attention to the 
shape and size of the India rubber, and to the child when 
stretching it, asking them what he is doing to it, and what 
change they notice in it when he is stretching it ? It be- 
comes longer. Then tell the child to let go the end he has 
pulled out, calling on the children to observe what happens 
to the India rubber. It returns to its shape. What was 
done to the India rubber ? How did it appear while it was 
being stretched? What happened to it when let go? 
Now what have you particularly observed in India rubber ? 
India rubber will stretch when pulled out, and returns to 



48 SECOND STEP. LESSON II. 

its place when let go. Children, repeat this together. Do 
you know how to describe this property of India rubber? 
It is said to be elastic. Repeat this word together. 
When are things said to be elactic ? Tell me something 
that is elastic. Why do you say that India rubber is 
elastic ? 

Call upon a child to name that property of India rubber 
which has been illustrated in the lesson, and then all repeat 
the name of the property together. 

LESSON II. 

A PIECE OF SPONGE, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF ONE KIND 

OF ELASTICITY. 

The name of the object first to be determined ; then a 
child is to be asked to try what can be done to it, when it 
will be found that it can be pressed close together. Ask 
how the sponge appears when it is pressed tightly. It ap- 
pears much smaller than before. Then tell the child to let 
it go, bidding all observe ; the sponge returns to its former 
shape and size. One child is now to describe that which 
they have all observed to occur, both when the sponge was 
pressed, and when the pressure was removed ; then all re- 
peat together : " Sponge can he pressed into a small space, 
but returns to its oimi shape and size iohe7i no longer 
pressedP Do you recollect something else, that after you 
have stretched it out, comes back to its shape when you 
let it go? What did you say that the India rubber was? 
In what are the India rubber and the sponge alike? They 
both return to their size and shaj^e when you leave them 



WHALEBONE. 49 

to themselves. Was the same done to both ? What was 
the difference ? The India rubber was stretched, the 
sponge was pressed. In what were they alike ? They 
both returned to their shape when left to themselves. 
What did we say the India rubber was? The sponge 
is also elastic. N'ow what things are elastic ? Why is 
the India rubber said to be elastic ? Why is sponge said 
to be elastic ? The children to be questioned as to the dif- 
ferent ways in which things return to their shape or size, 
till they gain the clear idea " that those things are said to 
he elastic^ which^ lohen their shape or size has been changed 
by force^ return to it if left to themselves:'' They should 
repeat this together several times. The children then to 
say what is one of the most striking qualities of a sponge. 



LESSOK III. 

WHALEBONE, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF ONE KIND OP 

ELASTICITY. 

See that the children know what the object is ; and then 
call one of them to try and see what he can do to it ; he 
will find that he can bend it ; tell him to let go one end of 
it, and bid the others observe what happens; after this, 
question them concerning its returning to its former shape. 
What kind of a line was it before it was bent ? What when 
you bent it ? What was it when you let one end of it 
go ? Then give a child a piece of cloth ; tell him to bend 
i' m tell him to let go of one end of it, and see whether 
do as the whalebone did, telling hini also to state 
8 



50 SECOND STEP. LESSON III. 

what he sees. The cloth remains bent, but what did you 
observe in the whalebone? After bending it, it returned 
to its own shape. What then can you say of whalebone ? 
It can be bent, and on being let go, returns to its own 
shape. Anything which has this property which you have 
observed is said to be elastic. Repeat this word to- 
gether. What is whalebone ? Why is whalebone said to 
be elastic ? 

Let the children bo required to say what other things 
they have learned about, which are elastic, and describe in 
what respect their elasticity differs from that of v/halebone. 
One of these, when stretched^ returns to its former shape ; 
another, lolien co'^npressedy returns to its former shape ; and 
Avhalebone, when hent^ returns to its former shape. In what 
were they all alike ? They all take their own shape when 
left to themselves. What can you say of all ? They are 
all elastic. Let the children next give the reason for their 
calhng India rubber elastic, and then be told to repeat to- 
gether: ^'■Indict rubber is said to be elastic, because, after 
being stretched out, it goes back to its own shape when 
left to itself." Let another of them say why sponge is said 
to be elastic, and then let all repeat together : " Sponge is 
said to be elastic, because, after having been compressed, 
it takes its own shape and size when left to itself." An- 
other shovild say in what manner whalebone is elastic, and 
then all repeat together : " Wlicdeboiie is elastic, because, 
when it has been bent, it goes back to its own shape when 
left to itself." 



A PIECE OP GLASS. 5} 

LESSON lY. 

A PIECE OF GLASS, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF TRANS- 

PAEENCY. 

The teacher is to show the children a piece of glass, and 
to lead them to observe its transparency ; preparing them 
for this by holding a pebble, or any similar object, behind 
the black board or the slate, and asking them what she has 
in her hand ; this they will not be able to tell ; the object 
should then be withdrawn from behind the board, and held 
behind the glass, and the same question asked, which they 
will now be able to answer. She may then ask them why 
they could not tell her what she had in her hand when she 
held it behind the slate, and why they could tell her what 
it was when she held it behind the glass. Then they should 
be asked what they can say of the glass, and repeat to- 
gether : " We can see through the glass." 

The teacher asks the children what they have observed 
in glass, and says : N"ow I will tell you what we call that 
quality which you have observed. "When we can see 
through a thing we say it is transparent ; repeat this word 
together. What is glass ? Why do we say it is trans- 
parent ? What can you say of water ? When are things 
called transparent ? Desire the children also to mention 
some other things that they can see through, and what 
they can say of them ; the word transparent is then writ- 
ten on the board, and they learn to spell it. 



52 SECOND STEP. — LESSON V. 

LESSON^ V. 

A PIECE OF SLATE, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF OPACITY. 

What is this? A piece of slate. Repeat together: 
" This is slate.^^ Which of you can tell me in what part 
of a house slate is sometimes used? (Show of hands.) 
Yes; in the roof. It does well for covering the roof; but 
what would you say to inaking the windows of slate? 
Why would it not do as well as glass ? We could not see 
through it. Let us try whether we can see anything 
through slate. The teacher holds it up, and puts several 
things behind it, which of course cannot be seen. What 
then can you say of slate ? Why would it not do for win- 
dows ? We should not be able to see through it. But 
more than that. Suppose the windows of this room to be 
of slate instead of glass, what would the room be ? It 
would be dark. What is it that comes into the room 
through the glass ? Light. What then is it that does not 
come through slate ? N"ot even light can be seen through 
slate. What can you say of slate ? We cannot see through 
slate. Kow that you have observed this quality in slate I 
will tell you what such tilings, are said to be. Tell me 
again what this quality is which you have observed in 
slate. That we cannot see through it ; we cannot even see 
light through it. Such things are said to be opaque. Re- 
peat this word together. "Row repeat together : " Slate is 
opaque?'' Tell me something else that is opaque. Why 
are wood, stone, and such like things, said to be opaque ? 
What do you say wood is ? Repeat together : " Wood is 



LEATHER. 53 



opaque^'' &c. When is anythiog said to be opaque ? The 
word must now be written on the board, and the children 
should learn to spell it. Now repeat together that quality 
of slate which you have now noticed. " Slate is opaqueP 



LESSOK VI. 

LEATHER. 



What is this? It is leather. What is leather? It is 
the skin of animals. Name some animals, the skins of 
which are used for leather. The cow, the horse, the calf, 
the sheep, and the dog. Does the skin of these animals 
look like this leather ? No. What is the difference ? 
Their skins are covered with hair. What has been done 
to them in making the leather ? The hair has been scraped 
off. Yes; and the skin has been cleaned and smoothed. 
How do we get paper? It is made of rags. Is leather 
made by man, as paper is? No. But has he nothing to 
do to the skin of the animal in order to make it into 
leather? Yes; it i^preimred by him for use. 

This is a piece of the skin of a horse. What has been 
done to it? It has been prepared. Now look at it and 
tell me what you see in it. It is black. Yes ; this side of 
it is black ; but this is hrown. And what side would you 
call that which is black? The upper side. And what that 
which is brown? The under side. Then how should you 
describe this piece of leather? The upper side of it is 
black, and the under side brown. Look at it again. We 
cannot see through it. You have learned the term for 



64 SECOND STEP. LESSON VI. 

this, have you not ? Yes ; it is opaque. (The teacher writes 
the word on the board, and the children spell it.) Tell me 
some things which are opaque. Stone, wood, slate. What 
are all these ? Look at the leather again. It is dull. Ob- 
serve both sides of it. The upper side is rather bright ; 
the under side is dull. !N"ow you have said that this leather 
is hlack and bright on' the upper side, and hroicn and dull 
on the under side, and that it is opaque. IIow did you find 
out these qualities ? Yes, by your sight. 

ISTow, take the leather in your hand, and tell me what 
you observe. It is thin. But if you compare it with the 
paper, what would you say ? It is not so thin as the paper. 
What more do you notice when you feel of it ? It is 
smooth. Compare the two sides. The upper side is the 
smoother. Try again what you can do with it. Wc can 
easily bend it. What could you do with the paper ? Fold 
it up. Can you do the same with the leather ? N'o ; we 
can bend it ; on this account it is said to hQ flexible. When 
do we call a thing flexible ? When we can easily bend it. 
What can you do with the paper besides bending and fold- 
ing it ? We can tear it. Try to tear the leather. We 
cannot do so. Why ? Because it is tough. Take it in 
your hand again, and try if you can say anything more of 
it. It is light. Now, you have told me that this leather 
is thin^ smooth^ flexible^ tough, and light ; how did you dis- 
cover these qualities ? By our hands. Yes, by feeling or 
touch. 

Now shut your eyes, and I will hold the leather near 
you, but without letting you see it or touch it ; what can 
you tell me about it now ? It has a smell. Whatever has 



LEATHER. 55 

a smell is said to be odorous. What then is leather ? It 
is odorous. How did you find out that it was odorous ? 
By the nose. In what manner ? By smelling it. You 
found out some qualities in this leather by the eye. Yes. 
In what way ? By looking at it. And some qualities you 
found out by the hand. Yes. How did you do this ? We 
touched it. And you found out that it was odorous by the 
nose. In what manner ? We smelled of it. 

Are you now wearing anything made of leather ? Yes, 
shoes. Why is leather fit for shoes ? It is strong. Yes, 
it is strong or durable. Why does your mother, in wet 
weather, wish you to have a good pair of leather shoes in 
which there are no holes ? That our feet may be kej^t dry. 
Then the water does not come through leather. It is wa- 
terproof. Why then is leather fit for shoes ? Because it 
is durable and waterproof You have before mentioned 
some other qualities w^hich make leather fit for shoes ; you 
would not like, I should think, to wear iron shoes ? Why 
not ? Because they would be so heavy. Leather then is 
fit for shoes because it is light. Why would wooden shoes 
be unpleasant to wear ? They would hurt the feet. Why 
does leather not hurt the feet ? It bends to the shape of 
the foot. Yes ; it is flexible. 

I?^ow, I will show you something more in the leather ; 
see, I put it in the fire ; it frizzles up. What did you no- 
tice in the paper when put into the fire ? It was soon 
burned up. And what do you observe in the leather ? It 
has a very unpleasant smell when burning. This is what 
happens to animal substances when you burn them ; they 
frizzle up, and give out a disagreeable odor. 



66 SECOND STEP. ^LESSON VU. 

Now, repeat together all that has been said about 
leather : " Leather is the skin of an animal:'' What is 
done to it ? It is prepared. " Leather, then, is the iwe- 
l^ared skin of an animal. By the eye, or by the sense 
of sight, we find out that it is hlack and bright on the U2> 
per side^ hroimi and dull on the under surface^ and that it 
is opaque ; by our hands, or by the sense of feeling, we 
find that it is tliin., tough^ flexible, and smooth ; by the 
nose, or by tlie sense of smell, we find that it is odorous. 
"When we put it into the fire it frizzles up, and gives off" a 
disagreeable odor : it is fit for shoes, because it is lasting, 
thin, light, flexible, and waterpn^oof:'* 

LESSON VII. 

LOAF SUGAK. 

Ideas to be developed by this lesson — soluble, fusible, 

brittle. 

Qualities of Loaf Sugar. 

It is soluble. It is white, 
fusible.* sparkling, 

brittle. solid, 

hard. opaque, 

sweet. 

Use. — ^To sweeten our food. 

* The difference between fusibility and solubility may be rendered ob- 
vious to the children, by dissolving one piece of sugar in water, and hold- 
ing another over the candle. It is better that such simple experiments 
should be performed in their presence, than that a mere description of the 
operation should be given. 



A PIECE OF GUM AEABIC. 57 

LESSON VIII. 

A PIECE OF GUM ARABIC. 

Ideas to be developed by this lesson — semi-transparenty 
adhesive. 

Qualities of Gum Arabic, 
It is hard. It is soluble in water. 

bright. adhesive when melted, 

yellow. solid. 

semi-transjDarent. 

Use. — ^To unite light and thin substances. 

lesso:n^ IX. 

SPONGE. 

Ideas to be developed by this lesson— ^orow5, absorbent. 

Qualities of Sponge. 
It is porous. It is elastic, 

absorbent.* dull, 

soft. flexible, 

tough. light brown, 

opaque, 

Use. — For washing. 

* The quality of absorbing will be made obvious to the class by show- 
ing that the sponge sucks up any liquid. It possesses this quality in con- 
sequence of its being full of pores. The use to which an object is applied, 
often leads to the observation of the quality upon which the use is de- 
pendent. 

3* 



68 SECOND STET. — LESSON X. 



LESSON X. 


WOOL. 


Qualities 


of Wool 


It is soft. 


It is tough. 


absorbent. 


durable. 


white. 


opaque. 


flexible. 


dry. 


elastic. 


light. 



Ifses. — For making cloth, flannels, blankets, carpets, 
stockings, &c. 

LESSON XL 

WATEK. 

Ideaa^to be developed by this lesson — colorless^ rC' 
flective^ inodorous^ cleansing. 

Qualities of Water. 
It is liquid. It is inodorous, 

reflective. • transparent, 

glassy. cleansing, 

colorless. 

Uses. — To cleanse ; to fertilize ; to drink ; for cooking 
-purposes. 

LESSON XII. 

A PIECE OF WAX, 

This substance is here introduced, because it possesses 
many of the qualities already noticed. 





CAIIPHOE 


• 




Qualities 


of 


Wax. 


It is solid. 




It 


is sticky. 


opaque. 






yellowish, 


duU. 






hard. 


tough. 






odorous. 


fusible. 






smooth. 



59 



Use. — ^To make candles and tapers. 
LESSON XIII. 

CAMPHOK. 

Ideas to be developed by this lesson — aromatic, stimu- 
lating^ iiiflammahle^ soluble i7i spirits. 

Qualities of Camphor. 

It is aromatic. It is soluble in spirits, 
stimulating. hard, 

white. solid, 

semi-transparent. very inflammable, 

bright. light. 

Uses. — ^For medicine ; to prevent the taking of disease ; 
to preserve cabinets from small insects. 

LESSOISr XIY. 

BEEAD. 

Ideas to be developed by this lesson — edible, ichole- 
some, nutritious, moist. 

Qualities of Bread. 

It is porous. It is opaque, 

absorbent. solid. 



60 SECOND STEP. — LESSON XV. 

Qualities of Bread. 
It is wholesome. The crumb is moist, 

nutritious. The crust is hard, 

edible. "brittle. 

The crumb is yellowish white. brown, 

soft, when new. 
Use, — ^To nourish. 

LESSON XV. 

SEALING WAX. 

Idea to be developed by this lesson— impressible. 

Qualities of Sealing Wax. 
It is hard. It is smooth, 

brif^ht. colored.-' 

brittle. inflammable, 

fusible. odorous, 

opaque. When fused it is soft, 

soluble in spirits. impressible, 

lioht. adhesive, 

solid. 
Use. — ^To seal letters. 

LESSON XVI. 

WHALEBONE. 

Idea to be developed by this lesson—fbrous. 

Qualities of Whalebone. 
It is elastic. It is fibrous, 

durable, opaque, 

.hard. , stiff. 

Uses. — ^As a stiffener ; for whips, &c. 

* The color will be determined by the specimen presented. 



GINGER. 61 

LESSON XVII. 

GINGER. 

Ideas to be developed by tbis lesson— pungentj medici- 
nal^ jagged. 

Qualities of Ginger, 

It is puDgent. It is tough, 
dull. opaque, 

hard. wholesome, 

dry. medicinal, 

fibrous. jagged, 

aromatic. light brown. 

Uses. — ^To flavor food ; for medicine. 
LESSON XVIII. 

BLOTTING PAPER. 

Ideas to be developed by this lesson — -pinkish^ pliable^ 

artificial. 

Qualities of Slotting Paper. 

It is absorbent. It is pliable, 
porous. dull, 

soft. inflammable, 

thin. easily torn, 

pinkish. ' artificial. 

Use. — ^To suck up superfluous ink. 
LESSON XIX. 

A PIECE OF WILLOW. 

Qualities of Willow. 
It is hard. It is fibrous, 

inflammable. dull. 



62 SECOND STEP. — LESSON XX. 

Qualities of Willoio. 

It is opaque. It is flexible, 

solid. \yhite. 

elastic. odorous. 

LESSON XX. 

MILK. 

Idea to be developed — greasy. 

Qualities of Milk, 

It is white. is greasy, 

liquid. nutritious, 

opaque. sweet, 
wholesome. 

Uses, — ^To make cheese, butter, puddings ; to drink ; 
food for young animals. 

LESSON XXL 

KICE. 

Qualities of Hice. 

It is white. It is solid. 
hard. porous, 

opaque. absorbent, 

smooth. wholesome, 

stiff. * nutritious, 
briffht. 
Use, — ^To nourish. 

LESSON XXIL 

SALT. 

Ideas to be developed by this lesson — grariuhuB^ sapid, 
saline^ preservative. 





A HORN. 








Qualities of Salt. 




It 


is white. 


It is hard. 




spar"kling. 




opaque. 




granulous. 




soluble. 




sapid, or has a taste. 




fusible. 




salt, or saline. 




preservative. 



63 



Uses, — ^To flavor food ; to preserve from putrefaction ; 
to manure land. 

LESSON XXD 

A HORN. 

Qualities of a Horn, 

It is hard. It is tapering, 
dull. opaque, 

uneven. stiff, 

hollow. yellowish brown, 

odorous when burnt. fibrous. 

Uses. — ^To make combs, glue, lanterns; handles to 
knives and forks. 

LESSON XXIV. 

IVOEY. 

Qualities of Ivory. 

It is hard. It is opaque, 
white. solid, 

smooth. durable, 

bright. 



64 SECOND STEP. — LESSON XXV. 

LESSON XXV. 

A PIECE OF THE BAKK OP THE OAK TREE. 

Idea to be developed by this lesson — astrmgent. 

Qualities of JBarTc. 

It is brown. It is stiff, 
rough on the outside. solid, 

smooth on the inside. durable, 

opaque. fibrous, 

dry. dull, 

inflammable. astringent.* 

Uses. — ^To guard the tree from injury ; for tanning 
LESSON XXVL 

AN UNCUT LEAD PENCIL. 

From this object the children may become acquainted 
with the cylinder ; for they will not fail to observe that the 
ends are flat, and that the other face is curved. 

Idea to be developed by this lesson — cylindrical. 



Parts. 


Qualities, 


The surface. 


It is hard. 


faces. 


odorous. 


ends. 


long. 



* The children may be made to understand the quality of astringency, 
by drawing their attention to the contracting effect produced in the mouth 
by eating a choke cherry or piece of alum. 



A WAX CANDLE. 65 

Parts, Qualities. 

The lead. It is solid, 

wood, opaque. 

inflammable, 
dry. 
brown. 
One face is curved. 
The ends are flat. 

circular. 
The form is cylindrical. 
The lead is gray, 
brittle, 
friable, 
bright. 

Uses. — For writing, drawing, &c. Let the children 
point out on what occasion a pencil is preferable to a pen, 
and vice versa. 

In this lesson, and others, the conceptive faculty may 
be exercised, by requiring the children to recall to their 
minds some object in which they had observed before the 
quality of inflammability ; also that of friability. 



LESSON XXVIL 

A WAX CANDLE. 

This object recalls the idea of the cylinder^ obtained 
in a previous lesson, and presents the peculiar ^ar^s of the 
candle itself 

Parts. Qualities. 

The wick. It is cylinder. 

wax. hard. 



66 



SECOND STEP. — LESSON XXVIII. 



Parts. 


Qualities. 


The surface. 


It is opaque. 


faces. 


yellowish white, 


ends. 


The wax is sticky. 


edges. 


fusible. 


top. 


The wick is inflammable. 


bottom. 


tough. 


middle. 


white. 




fibrous. 




flexible. 



Use. — ^To give light. 

The children should be asked, What must be done be- 
fore the candle gives light ? What becomes of the wick? 
What of the wax ? 



LESSON XXVIII. 

A PEN. 



A pen presents many different parts ; the qualities of 
some of these are opposite to the qualities of others. 



Ideas to be developed by 


' this lesson — angular, grooved. 


spo7igy. 




Parts. 


Qualities. 


The quill. 


The quill is transparent. 


shaft. 


cylindrical. 


feather. 


hollow. 


lamina?. 


bright. 


pith. 


hard. 


nib. 


elastic. 


split. 


yellowish. 


shoulders. 


horny. 





A PEN. 


Parts. 


Qualities. 


The surface. 


The shaft is opaque. 


faces. 


angular. 


skin. 


solid. 


groove. 


white. 


inside. 


stiff. 


outside. 


hard. 




grooved 




The pith is white. 




spongy. 




porous. 




elastic. 




soft. 



67 



68 THIBD STEP. — LESSON I. 



THIED STEP. 

INTKODUCTORY EEMAEKS FOR THE DIEECTION OF THE 

TEA(5nEK. 

In tMs series the children may be led to the observation 
of qualities which cannot be discerned merely by the senses. 
Thus by showing them at the same time wool and woollen 
cloth, and questioning them as to the difference of the 
two, they will readily conceive the ideas of natural and 
artificial. In this manner they may be led to remark the 
distinction between foreign and 7iative/ exotic and i7idi' 
genous / animal^ vegetable^ mineral^ c5c. 

At this Step the conceptive powers should be more de- 
cidedly called into exercise ; the way for this is prej^ared 
by the clearness and vividness of the ideas obtained through 
the careful cultivation of perception. 

LESSON I. 

CHALK. 

What is this? Apiece of chalk. Where do we get 
chalk ? Out of the earth. What are those places called 
out of which chalk is taken ? Chalk pits. God has placed 



CHALl?- 69 

a ffreat deal of chalk in the earth in some countries, so that 
it rises up and forms low, rounded hills. Where have you 
ever seen a hill ? Chalk, you say, comes out of the earthy 
dug from chalk pits. Paper, you remember, is 7nade by 
man — leather is prepared by man, but chalk is neither 
made nor prepared by man ; and it is therefore said to be 
a natural substance. Why is chalk said to be natural? 
Because it is neither made nor prepared by man. 

Why do you think that this is chalk? It is white. 
Yes, chalk is white., but milk is white also ; how then do 
you know chalk from milk? Milk is liquid. Yes, the 
chalk does not flow or form itself into drops ; it is in a 
solid lump. Chalk is solido Why do we call it solid? 
Because it does not form drops, but is found in a lump. 

Now look at this lump of sugar ; this, like the chalk, is 
white and solid ; how do we know it from the chalk ? It 
is sparkling. Yes, and the chalk is dull. Now you have 
seen that the chalk is white., solid., and dull. Look at it 
again. We cannot see through it. What then can you say 
of it ? It is opaque. Thus by the sense of sight you dis- 
cover that chalk is white., solid, dull, and opaque. 

Now feel the chalk. It feels very dry. Rub it. It 
crumbles. Into what condition does it crumble? That 
of a powder. Chalk is dry and crumbling. What hap- 
pens when I draw the chalk across the slate ? Some of the 
chalk remains on the slate, and leaves a mark. That is 
because the chalk is crumbling. What quality of chalk 
makes it useful to us ? That of its beinsc crumbling^. Who 
gave it this most useful quality ? God. Yes ; God, who 
made the chalk, made it of a crumbling nature. 



70 THIRD STEP.— LESSON 11. 

And now tell me another sense by which we find out a 
quality, in addition to those of sight and touch ? The 
sense of smell. Well, smell of the chalk. It has no smell ; 
it is inodorous. How do you find out that sugar is sweet ? 
By tasting it. But as chalk is not meant to be eaten, you 
need not taste it, though you may put it to your tongue, 
and tell me what you observe. It sticks to the tongue. 
Yes; repeat together: " Chalk sticks to the iongueP 
Where have you seen chalk used? To write on the 
black board. 

Now all of you repeat everything you have learned 
about chalk. 

" Chalk is dug out of chalk pits. There is so much 
chalk in the earth in some countries, that it forms hills. 
Chalk is a natural substance, of great use to man. When 
we look at chalk we find that it is white, solid, dull, and 
opaque y' by feeling it w^c find that it is dry and sticks to 
the tongue / it is cfrmnhling, and therefore useful for loriting 
with; it is inodorous / and it is used for writing on the 
black board." 

LESSON II. 

COAL. 

I hold in my hand a piece of a natural substance, and I 
wish you to tell me what it is ? But first tell me what I 
mean by a natural substance ? That which is not made by 
man. The natural substance which I hold in my hand was 
dug out of the earth ; it is black, and very useful to man ; 
guess what it is. Yes, it is a piece of coal. Why did you 



COAL. ^1 

think it to be coal ? Because you said that it was black, 
and that it came out of the earth, and was useful to man. 
What quality of coal is it which makes it so useful to man? 
Its being so inflamonahle. How is it that this quality of 
coal makes it so useful ? Because we can cook our food, 
and warm our rooms with it. Yes ; how sad it would have 
been last winter, if there had not been coals for fires. Who 
made coals inflammable ? God. How very good is our 
Heavenly Father in giving to different things differing 
qualities, that they may be of varied use to man ! He has 
caused some to be liquid, that we may drink them / some 
to be wholesome, that we may be nourished by them ; 
some to be crumbling, that" we may icrite with them ; and 
some to be inflammable, that we may be luarmed by them. 

ISTow examine this piece of coal. It is very bright, and 
it is opaque. Repeat together : " Coal is very bright^ and 
it is opaqiieP Feel it. It is hard, solid, and brittle. Re- 
peat together: "Coal \s>hard^ solid^ brittle.^'' Sometimes, 
teacher, there are little bright yellow patches in tlie coal. 
Yes, those are little bits of iron ; and we sometimes find 
pieces of slate in the coal, and then we say it is not good, it 
will not hum well. 

What use do we make of coal ? We cook our food and 
warm our rooms with it. What other use is made of coal ? 
Gas is made from it. What is the use of gas? To light 
the streets. What other use is made of coal ? It is used 
in producing steam. What does steam come from ? From 
boiling water. What makes the water boil so as to be- 
come steam ? The fire. And what makes the best fire ? 
Coal. If we cannot get coal, what could we use instead of 



72 . THIED STEP. — LESSON HI. 

it ? Wood. And what must we do to get wood ? We 
must cut down our trees. Now repeat together your les- 
son upon coal : " Coal is a natural substance dug out of the 
earth y it is very useful to maji^ because it is very inflarri' 
radble. It is blacky bright^ brittle^ hard^ and opaque. It is 
useful for cooMng our food and loarming our rooms / for 
making gas, and producing steam, and also for many other 
purposes." 

LESSON in. 

A MATCH. 

Do you know what this is ? Yes, teacher, it is a match. 
Are matches found ready made ? No. How do we get 
them ? They are made by some person. Tell me then 
what the different parts of a match are. The sulphur and 
the wood. And where is the sulphur put ? At the end of 
the match. How many ends has the match ? Two. Do 
you observe any other parts ? The sides. Then the parts 
of a match are, the wood^ the sulphur, the e7idst the sides. 

And now tell me what is sulphur? Where does it 
come from ? It comes out of the earth. Who can tell me 
what we call things which are dug out of the earth, but 
which do not grow out of it ? Stones. No ; we do not 
call everything dug out of the earth stone ; I think some 
of you will recollect a very useful thing, which, though it 
is dug out of the earth, we do not call a stone ; what is it ? 
Yes, coal. But you would not call coal a stone, would' 
you, or sulphur ? No ; but everything that is dug out of 
the earth may be called a mineral. What then is a min- 
eral ? And now tell me what sulphur is. It is a mineral. 



A MATCH. 73 

Why is sulphur said to be a mineral ? ]N"ame any other 
minerals you know. 

Now look carefully at the sulphur, and tell me some- 
thing about it. It is yellow. Yes ; all of you repeat to- 
gether : " Sulphur is yellow?'* See, I put some of it to a 
lighted candle. It is on fire. What do you say those 
things are that readily take fire ? They are inflammable. 
SuljDhur is inflcwiindble. Did you notice anything more in 
the sulphur when it took fire ? The flame was very blue. 
Repeat : " Sulphur burns with a blue jlame?'' I think you 
can find out something more by my having set the sulphur 
on fire. It gives off a very unpleasant smell. What are 
those things called that give out a smell ? Sulphur is odor- 
ous. By what did you find out that sulphur was odorous ? 
By the nose. What use did you make of your noses then? 
We smelled with them. By what did you find out that sul- 
phur was yellow ? By the eye. What use did you make 
of your eyes then ? We saw with them. There is some- 
thing more that the fire does to the sulphur ; what is it ? 
The fire melts it. Repeat : " Sulphur melts when heated." 
What is the quality that makes sulphur useful to us ? Its 
being inflammable. 

Of what is the greater part of this match made ? Of 
wood. You have told me that sulphur is a mineral, be- 
cause it is found in the earth ; now what is wood ? It is a 
vegetable. Yes ; all repeat together : " Wood is vegetable.'*'' 
What is it taken from ? A tree. What kind of wood is 
this ? It is pine. Yes ; and here is a picture of the pine 
tree. 

Now examine this piece of wood, and tell me something 
4 



74 THIRD STEP. LESSON III. 

about it. It is hard ; it is dry ; it is opaque ; in color it is 
yellowish white. Repeat these qualities of wood all to- 
gethei* : " Pine wood is hard, dry, opaque, dull ; the color 
is yellowish white." IS^ow I will put a bit of it to the flame 
of this candle. It has taken lire : it is inflammable. What 
difierence did you observe between the sulphur and wood 
when put into the flame ? The sulphur took fire sooner, 
and burned with a blue flame. Yes ; and it also melted 
into drops; but what does wood become w^hen it has been 
burned ? It becomes ashes. ISTow think a little and try to 
find out why both sulphur and wood are required in order 
to make a good match ? The sulphur is used in a match 
because it takes fire so quickly. And what of the wood ? 
How long did the sulphur burn ? It burned but a very 
short time. It would not burn long enough to enable any 
one to light a candle or fire from it ; but the wood burns a 
much longer .time ; so we have the sulphur because it takes 
fire quickly, and sets fire to the wood ; and the w^ood, be- 
cause it burns much longer, and enables us to light a fire or 
candle without hurry. 

Kow you shall repeat all you have said about the match. 
*' A match is made of wood and sulphur. The sulphur is 
placed at one end j it is a miner cd substance, and comes out 
of the earth / it is yelloio ; it is very inflammable, burning 
with a blue flame ; it also melts in fire, and is very odorous. 
Wood is a vegetable substaaice, and comes from a tree called 
a pine tree. The wood is inflammable, but it does not burn 
away so fast as the sulphur / it burns to ashes / its color is 
yellowish lohite y it is hard^ dry^ dull, and opaque,'''' 



A ROSE LEAF. ^5 

LESSON IV. 

A KOSE LEAF. 

What is this ? It is a leaf. Where are leaves found ? 
On plants and trees. What leaves do cows and horses eat ? 
Those of the grass. What leaves do we sometimes eat ? 
Cabbage leaves and spinach, &c. Do you know a word by 
which you can at once speak of trees, and grass, and cab- 
bages ? What is one of the largest vegetables you have 
ever seen ? An elm tree. Tell me the name of a smaller 
one. Wheat. Tell me of one we often eat. Lettuce. 
What are all these called ? Vegetables. Where do vege- 
tables come from ? They grow out of the ground. If I 
had a piece of land without any vegetables growing ujDon 
it, what must I do to raise some ? You must sow some 
seed in it. Where must I put the seed ? In the earth. 
If I were to sow some grass seed, what would follow ? 
Some grass would spring up. And what would it be at 
first ? Very small. If it were healthy, would it continue 
so small ? No. What would it do ? It would grow. If 
I were to put an acorn in the ground, what would happen ? 
A little root would burst out of it and go down into the 
ground, and a little green shoot would come up and put out 
some little leaves. Yes, and at first it would be very small ; 
but it would grow^ so that in many years it would become 
a great oaJc. But would the same occur if I buried a piece 
of flint or coal in the earth ? No. These do not grow 
out of the earth as vegetables do. 

Kow you know the difference between a mineral ?md a 



VG THIRD STEP. LESSON IV. 

vegetable. Look at tins leaf, and tell me its different parts. 
By what part do I hold it ? The stalk. What does the 
stalk bear ? The leaf. The stalk that bears a leaf is called 
the leaf stalk ; what is this ? A leaf stalk. Find out some 
' of the parts of the leaf. The edge. Here are two leaves, 
one from a rose tree, the other from the plant on which the 
lily grows ; what difference do you observe in the edges of 
them ? The rose leaf has little points, which the Uly leaf 
has not. Yes ; the points are called teeth, because they are 
hke the sharp pointed teeth of some animals ; and an edge, 
that has such points, is said to be toothed. What is this 
edge ? It is toothed. Why is it said to be toothed ? Be- 
cause it has points like the teeth of some animals. 

Find out some other parts of this leaf. There is a line 
down the middle of it. Yes ; that line is called the mid- 
rib. See whether the midrib is the same on both sides of 
the leaf. It sinks in on one side and stands out on the 
other. Which of you can tell me what they call the hol- 
low line made by the plough in a ploughed field ? A fur- 
row. And what do they call the raised part on each side 
of it? A rid2:e. What is the midrib like on this side of 
the leaf? A furroio. And on this side it is like a ridge. 
Now you see there are two sides or surfaces to the 
leaf; by what names would you distinguish them ? When 
the loaf is on the tree, which side is uppermost? This, 
therefore, is called the u^yper side ; and what w^ould you 
call the other ? The under side. Look carefully at the 
leaf again. There are other lines upon it. Where do these 
lines spring from ? From the midrib. And where do they 
end ? In the edge. These lines are called the veins ; in 



A KOSE LEAF. ' V7 

I 

what are they like the midrib ? They sink in like furrows 
on the upper side of the leaf, and rise up like ridges on the 
under surface of it. Do you see any other part. The end. 
The point or end is oi:)posite to the stalk. 

Now tell me some of the qualities of the leaf; what can 
you say of it ? It is green ; it is rather bright. Look 
again, and see if both sides are bright. No ; the under side 
is dull. Here arc several leaves ; what difference do you 
observe in their upper and under surfaces? The ui')per 
surface is the brighter. Feel of the rose leaf. It is thin ; 
it is soft. Anything more ? It bends easily. What do 
you say of a thing which bends easily? It is pliable. 
What can you then say of this leaf? It is pliable. What 
more do you notice when you feel of it ? It is light and 
smooth. What is its shape ? It is round. (The teacher 
draws a correct circle on the black board.) What, is it 
like this in shape ? No, not quite I Avill draw the shape 
of an Qg^ ; which is it more like ? It is more like the 
shape of the o^g. We call the shape of an Qgg oval ; 
what would you say is the shape of this leaf? It is oval. 

Now you must let me hear you all together repeat the 
heads of this lesson on the rose leaf. " A rose leaf is a veg- 
etahle substance j it grows on a leaf stalJc / it has a toothed 
edge ; it has a midrib^ which is like a farrow on the ?/p^;er 
side^ and like a ridge on the under side / it has also many 
veins^ which are like furrows on the upper side, and like 
ridges on the under side. Its color is green ; its shape is 
oval. To the touch it is thifi, soft, smooth ; it is 2^l^(^l^l(^ / 
the upper side is rather bright, and. the under side is duU.''^ 



78 THIRD STEP.— LESSON V. 



LESSON V. 

HONEY COMB. 

What is this ? A piece of honey comb. Where does 
it come from ? A bee hive. Who placed it in the hive ? 
The bees made it there. Can you tell me how the bees 
made it ? No, I am sure you cannot. They have no 
hands, nor tools, yet see how beautifully it is made ; not 
one of you could form such a piece of comb. Where did 
the bees learn how to make the comb ? Yes ; God taught 
them, and enabled them to do it well. He has taught all 
animals to do whatever is necessary to their comfort. Now 
look at the honey comb, and tell me what you see. It is 
full of holes. The holes are called cells. What parts do 
you see in the cells ? What do we call that part of this 
room in which the windows are, and where the door is ? 
The sides. Well, see what the cells have ? They have 
sides. Count how many sides each cell has. Yes ; each cell 
has six sides. Look- again at the room, and tell me what 
you call those parts of it in which the sides meet each other. 
The corners. And what has each cell ? It has corners. 
How many corners has each cell ? — count them. Six. Re- 
peat ; '^ Each cell has six corners.'^'' When you look into 
the cell, what part of it do you see? The bottom, or floor 
of it. And what is the other end called ? The top. What 
is there round the top ? An edge. 

Now try to find out some qualities of the honey comb; 
you may take it in your fingers. It is very light and sticky. 
Now look at it. It is dull. It is yellow. Hold it up 



HONEY COMB. 79 

to the light. Is it transparent, or is it quite opaque? 
What do you observe? We see the light through it. 
When you see light through a substance it is said to be 
translucent. Why is this honey comb said to be translu- 
cent ? Because we can see the light through it. Now 
look at it as I press it in my fingers. I have crushed it ; 
it is hrittle. Now I put it into the flame of a candle ; it 
melts. When does it melt ? When it is heated. It is 
fusible. 

What use does the bee make of the cells ? It stores up 
honey in them. And where does the bee get the honey ? 
From flowers. Yes; in summer the bee collects honey, 
which it stores up in some of the cells ; but it also uses 
others of the cells for another purpose ; the young bees are 
kept in them, and these are fed and watched by the old 
bees till they get their wings, and then they fly, and begin 
to work themselves. And what do we make of the honey 
comb ? We melt it down into wax. And what use do we 
make of the wax? We make candles of wax. Yes; and 
we rub furniture with it, to make it bright. I should think 
that some of you have seen wax used for other purposes be- 
side these. Yes, teacher, my mother uses it. What does 
she use wax for ? She rubs her thread with it to make it 
firm and strong. Now repeat all you know about the honey 
comb. " Honey comb is made by hees^ who put into it the 
honey they get from. Jlozmrs. It is formed of a number of 
little cells, each of which has six sides, and six corners, a 
bottom, or floor, and a to2:) with an edge. Wax is very 
lir/ht, thin, and sticky y its color is light yelloio / it is dull / 
it is translucent y it is hrittle, and melts luhen heated. We 



80 THIliD STEl'. LESSOX M. 

use it to make candles and to polish furniture; it is used 
to strengthen threads 

LESSON VI. 

A BUTTERFLY. 

What is this ? It is a butterfly. What is a butterfly ? 
An insect. What is an insect ? It is neither a vegetable 
nor a mineral ; it is an animal, ISTow examine the butterfly, 
and tell me its different parts. It has wings. How many 
wings has a butterfly? Four. What difference do you 
observe in these four wings ? Two of them are large and 
two are small. What can it do with its wings ? It can fly. 
Where are the wings placed ? Two on each side of the 
body. In what position are the wings when the insect is 
flying ? Are they in the direction of the walls of the room, 
or of the ceihng ? They are in the direction of the ceil- 
ing.^* In what other direction does the butterfly some- 
times place its wings ? It sometimes puts them upright, 
so that they touch each other ; but when it flies they are 
always spread open. If you had a piece of thin paper, 
which you wished to float on the air, would you roll it up, 
or spread it out ? I should spread it out. Yes ; then the 
air would support it. What does the butterfly do that is 
like this ? f It opens its wings and spreads them out. 

* If the children have learned the diflcreuce between the horizontal 
and vertical position, they may here apply their knowledge. 

\ The youngest children should be led to the observation of facts. 
The reasoning upon them, and drawing conclusions from them, is the work 
of a later period. 



A BUTTEEFLY. 81 

What more do you observe in the butterfly's wings? 
They are beautifully marked. See, I rub the wings with 
my finger. What do you perceive ? The color comes off. 
There is a kind of down upon the wings which is easily 
rubbed off. Repeat together : " The butterfly has four 
loings^ two of them are large and two small. They are 
placed on either side of the body. When it flies the wings 
are spread out; when at rest, they are often upright. 
They are covered with beautifully colored down^ which is 
very easily rubbed off.'''' 

l^ow what other part do you observe in the butterfly ? 
The legs. How many legs has a butterfly ? It has six 
legs. Where are they placed ? Underneath the body. 
What can the butterfly do with its legs ? It can walk. 
Does it use them much in walking? ISTo, What do you 
generally see a butterfly doing ? Flying about. And 
when it is not flying, what is it doing? It is standing. 
What does it stand upon ? Its legs. When we ourselves 
walk or move along we bend our legs ; what do we call 
that part where the leg bends? We call it a joint. And 
what can the butterfly do with its legs ? It can bend 
them. What then must it have upon its legs? Joints. 
Repeat together what you know of the butterfly's legs : 
"The butterfly has six legs placed under its body ; the 
legs have joints ; it uses its legs chiefly to stand upon.'''' 

Now find out another part of the butterfly. Its body. 
What sort of a body has it ? It is long and small. You 
may call it slender. Where is the body placed? Be- 
tween the wings. What more do you observe in it ? It 
is covered with hairs. Repeat together : " The body of the 
4* 



82 THIRD STEP. LESSON VI. 

butterfly is slender and covered with hairs ; it is placed 
between its imigsP 

What other part do you see ? The head. And what 
has the butterfly upon its head ? It has horns. How 
many ? Two. What sort of horns are they ? They are 
long. And what more ? Fine. What do you observe as 
to the ends of these ? They are thick. The horns of 
the butterfly always end in thick knobs. What more do 
you see on the head ? Eyes. Ho^v many ? Tvro. What 
is the use of the eyes ? They are to see with. Look 
again at the head ; there are some things that stick out. 
These are called feelers ; most insects have four feelers. 
Look, here is something which I draw out from between 
the feelers. What is it like ? It is like a rolled up hair. 
This is the butterfly's mouth, and it is called a trunk. 
Which of you can tell me Vv^hat butterflies feed upon ? 
Honey. And where do they find honey? In flowers. 
Yes ; generally at the bottom of the flowers. Could they 
get at it if they had mouths like yours and mine ? No. 
What then is the particular use of such a mouth as this to 
a butterfly ? To get at the honey at the bottom of the 
flowers. Yes, the butterfly darts its trunk into the flowers, 
and as it is hollow, it can suck up the sweet honey through 
it. What pleasure you will now have in observing a but- 
terfly, and in thinking that God has given it just such a 
mouth as an insect which feeds on honey needs, while ours 
is the best for us ! Now repeat together the names of the 
parts of the butterfly's head : " The butterfly has two eyes 
on its head^ and two horns^ which are lo7ig^ each ending in 
a Jcnoh, It has four feelers ; between two of which is 



• A BUTTEKFLY 83 

placed its mouthy which is a long curled-up irwik ; it darts 
this trunk into floioers to get at the honey?'' 

The children's remarks upon the color and marks of the 
butterfly must be determined by the particular species of 
that brought before them. The teacher should lead them 
to admire its beauty, and to observe the happy life it seems 
to lead, and then draw attention to the sin of teasing a little 
creature which God has formed to be happy, and of injur- 
ing that ^vhich God has made so beautiful. ISTo opportu- 
nity should be lost of endeavoring to counteract that pro- 
pensity to cruelty which is so common in children ; this 
evil disposition springs generally from a love of showing 
power; they should therefore be encouraged to exercise 
any power God may have bestowed, in increasing the hap- 
piness of all His creatures. They should .be early trained 
to feel that they are accountable for every faculty they 
possess, even for their power over the most insignificant 
insect. 

In what kind of weather do butterflies come out ? In 
fine sunshiny weather. How do they employ themselves ? 
In flying about and gathering honey. Would it be right 
in us to imitate the butterfly ? l^o ; because God has 
given us all work to do, and tells us in His Word to be as 
industrious as the ant. The life of the butterfly is short, it 
. needs but to provide for the present day ; but we should 
labor while v/e have youth and strength, that we may not 
be a burden to others when we become old. 

ISTow repeat together all that we have said of the but- 
terfly. " The butterfly is an insect : it has four wings, two 
of which are large and two are small ; when it flies these 



84 THIRD STEP. LESSON VII. 

are spread out ; they are covered with beautiful down, 
which is easily nibbed off: between the wings is the body, 
which is long and slender, and covered with soft hairs ; 
under its body are six legs, w^hich hi\.\Q joints ; it does not 
use its legs much in walking, but chiefly in standing : upon 
the head there are two long horns, with knobs at the end ; 
two eyes; four feelers ; between two of the feelers is 
placed the mouth, which is a long, hollow trunk, curled up 
when not in use ; it darts this trunk into flowers, to get at 
the honey, upon which it feeds." 

LESSON VII. 

EECAPITULATION. 

Here are the four objects upon which you have had les- 
sons this week. What are they ? A match, a leaf, a piece 
of honey comb, and a butterfly. Which of these is made 
by man ? The match. What things must the person have 
who would make a match ? Sulphur and wood. What 
kind of a substance is sulphur ? It is a mineral substance. 
And what is wood ? It is a vegetable substance. Upon 
what other vegetable substance have you had a lesson ? A 
leaf. Are the leaf and the wood whole vegetables ? N'o ; 
they are but parts of vegetables. The butterfly is a whole 
animal. Tell me the name of another animal. A dog. I 
will write the names of these two animals on the board — 
butterfly, dog. !N"ow, tell me the names of two whole veg- 
etables, that I may write them down also. A rose tree, 
wheat. InTow of two minerals. Sulphur and flint. We 
have now two animals, two vegetables, and two minerals. 



RECAPITULATION. 85 

Now tell me what can the butterfly do ? It can fly.* 
What can the dog do ? It can run. Can the dog fly, or 
the butterfly run ? No. But can you not find out some- 
thing that we can say is done by both of them, when the 
one flies and the other runs ? They both move. In what 
manner does the butterfly move ? It flies from flower to 
flower. Whom does the butterfly please in thus flying from 
flower to flower ? Itself. The butterfly flies about when- 
ever it pleases. And when the dog runs about or lies down 
to sleep, whom is he j)leasing? Himself. Then the dog- 
moves about whenever Aejs^^easesy what then can you say 
that both these animals do ? They move about as they 
please. 

But now think a' little about these vegetables, and tell 
me how in this respect they difier from the animals. The 
vegetables cannot move about. Did yon never see a tree 
move ? Yes ; when the wind blows. In what then is its 
mo vino; different from the moving;; of an animal ? The ani- 
mal moves about when and where it likes, but the tree does 
not move from j)lace to place ; its branches move when the 
wind blows them. But think what vegetables do. If I 
wished to have a crop of wheat in my field, what must I do ? 
Sow some seed. Yes ; I must put the little seed into the 
ground ; and what then ? It will spring up. And what 
will it become at last ? Wheat. Yes ; a plant of wheat 
with a stem^ and leaves^ and a head. But what must have 
happened to the vegetable when, from being a little seed, 

* Of course it is impossible to anticipate the exact answers of children, 
but the points here dwelt upon are those to which the teacher should direct 
observation by questions. 



86 THIRD STEP. — LESSON VIII. 

it has become a large plant ? It must have grown. What 
then do vegetables do ? They grow. Yes ; vegetables 
grow. Do anunals also grow? Yes. Tell me hov^ you 
know that animals grow. We had a little kitten, which is 
now a great cat. What can you say of animals? That 
they grow, and move about where they please. What can 
you say of vegetables ? That they grow. 

But now think about minerals ; supposing I put this 
piece of flint into the ground, as I might a seed ; if I came 
in a fortnight, might I expect to see any part of it above 
the earth ? No. Why not ? If I had put in a seed I 
should expect to see a .little shoot coming up. Yes ; be- 
cause the vegetable grows, but the mineral does not grow. 
Well, then, you have found out that animals gi'ow^ and move 
about as they please ; vegetables grow ; minerals neither 
grow nor move from place to place. 

LESSON VIII. 

SKETCH OF A LE3S0X ON THE MASSACEE OF THE CHILDEEN 

OF BETHLEHEM. 

Intended for Children of 7iine or ten years of age. 

I. Picture examined. — Get the children to examine the 
picture, telling what they see ; as, a man, a woman, a child. 
The man looks strong and fierce, holds a knife or dagger in 
one hand, a child in the other by one of its legs. The in- 
fant seems frightened ; its mouth is open ; it is crying. The 
woman is kneeling at the feet of the man, stretching out 
her arms toward the child ; she looks frightened and im- 



MASSACRE OF THE CHILDREN OF BETHLEHEM. 87 

ploring. What does this mean ? What does it appear the 
man is about to do with the infant ? Why is the woman so 

imploring ? 

Thus introduced, endeavor to make the children picture 
to themselves the distressing scene recorded in Matthew ii, 
16-18 ; how wretched the poor mothers must have been to 
see their helpless infants torn from them, and murdered be- 
fore their eyes, by brutal men sent for that purpose— and 
probably in every house a murder ; expressed in the lan- 
guage of Jeremiah, " lamentation, and weeping, and great 
mourning." 

n. Narrative told.—Beve read or detail to the children 
the circumstances that led to this general massacre of poor 
unoffending babes; questioning them, to ascertain that they 
are following the teacher. The wise men's visit— they apply 
to Herod for information as to the birthplace of the King of 
Israel, who hears them with astonishment — ^he consults the 
scribes, who point out Bethlehem as the place of Messiah's 
birth— he is moved with jealousy, fearing that his throne 
will be taken from him— under a mask of hypocrisy he di- 
rects the wise men to find out the new-born Prince, and 
requests them to return to him with tidings, that he may 
go and worship Him also — an angel tells them to return to 
their own country another way — Herod's disappointment — 
he orders the slaughter of all the children of a certain age, 
both in Bethlehem and the neighborhood, that among 
them the Saviour might fall — with fearful exactness his 
commands were carried out — an example of which we see 
in the picture before us. 

JTT. God^s Providence, — ^Lead the children to consider 



88 THIRD STEP. LESSON VIII. 

how God overruled Herod's wicked design, and preserved 
the infant Jesus. What did Herod think he had done ? 
Defeated the indications of the star, and accompUshed his 
own will in opposition to that of the Almighty. But had 
he done so ? Remark that whatever crafty, cruel devices 
were in his heart, the counsel of the Lord must stand. 
This event formed another accomplishment of the words 
of the prophet Jeremiah (xxxi, 15-17). Thus, also, the 
date of Christ's birth was publicly marked, and all others 
who could have pretended to be the Messiah, as having 
been born at Bethlehem about the same time, were cut off. 
Lead the children next to see that Joseph knew neither the 
danger the Child was in, nor, if he had known it, was he 
aware of any way to escape ; but an angel appears and 
tells him of both. '^ Take the young Child by night, and 
flee into Egypt." Thus the infant Jesus was rescued. 
How vain is it for man to contend against the Almighty ! 

IV. Practical application. — ^Direct the children, by 
questions, to observe the main ideas in the preceding parts 
of the lesson, and to make a threefold application : 1st, 
"What the cruelty of Herod suggests. 2d, What the work- 
ings of God's providence. 3d, The preservation of the in- 
fant Jesus. 

1st. From the cruelty of Herod we learn to what 
lengths wicked men will go when they give way to evil 
passions, and how guarded we should be against envy and 
jealousy. 

2d. From the working of God's overruling providence, 
we see how He can thwart and baffle the wicked designs 
of men, and make their wrath to praise Him. But can the 



A t^UlLL 



89 



Messiah, Who is to be the consolation of Israel, be intro- 
duced with all this lamentation? Yes; 1st, for so it was 
foretold ; and 2d, if wq look further, we shall find that the 
weeping in Kamah was but a forerunner to the greatest 
joy; for it follows: "Thy work shall be rewarded, and 
there is hope in thy end ; " " Unto them a child was born," 
sufficient to repair their losses. 

3d. From the preservation of the Saviour, we learn the 
security of God's people, which may be also seen in the 
case of David, who said : " I will not be afraid of ten 
thousands of people that have set themselves against me 
round about." 





LESSON^ IX, 






A OUILL. 




This subject is 


taken as it brings up many terms ] 


viously developed. 






Parts. 


( 


Qualities. 


The quill. 


It 


is long. 


shaft. 




stiff. 


ends. 




useful. 


feather. 




natural. 


laminae. 




animal substance 


inside. 


The barrel 


is transparent. 


outside. 




hard. 


groove. 




elastic. 


surface. 




bright. 


faces. 




yellowish. 


pith. 




cylindrical. 


skin. 




hollow, 
light. 




The shaft 


is feathered. 



90 THIllD STEP. ^LESSON X. 

Qualities. 

The shaft is white, 
stiff, 
hard, 
opaque, 
solid. 
ai:gular. 
grooved. 

Children may be led to remark the difference which fire 
produces on animal and vegetable substances, both as to 
appearance and smell. 

The teacher now requires the class to give an explana- 
tion in their own words of the terms they have used. 

L-ESSON X. 



A 


PENNY. 


Idea to be developed in 


L this lesson — metallic. 


Parts. 


Qualities. 


The surface. 


It is round. 


faces. 


flat. 


edges. 


mineral. 


milling. 


metallic. 


impression. ^ 


opaque. 


image. 


bright. 


superscription. 


reddish white. 


date. 


fusible. 




hard. 




artificial.* 




heavy. 



durable, 
uneven. 

* The class should be led to remark that, though the workmanship is 
artificial, the substance is natural. 



MUSTAED SEED. 



91 



LESSON XI. 

MUSTARD SEED. 



Ideas to be developed by tbis lesson — indigenous^ pul- 

verahle, spherical. 

Qualities, 



It is pungent, 
yellow, 
hard. 

pulverable. 
indigenous, 
spherical, 
stimulating. 



It is dull, 
opaque, 
.dry. 
natural, 
vegetable, 
solid. 



LESSON XII. 



AN APPLE. 



Idea to be developed — membranaceous. 



Qualities, 



It is spherical. V 
^ odorous, 
•colored. 
■' opaque. 
^ natural. 
^ vegetable, 
■^juicy. 

V hard. 

V solid. 

- pleasant. 
The eye ia^dry. 

'^ brown. 

V shrivelled. 



A 



The seeds are brown on the 
outside when 
ripe, 
white in the in- 
side, 
hard. 
The core is membranace^ 
ous. 
stiff, 
yellow, 
hard. 

semi-transpa- 
rent. 



92 THIKD STEP. — LESSON XIII. 

LESSON XIII. 

GLASS OF A WATCH. 

The ideas to be develoj^ed by this lesson — concave and 

convex. 

Parts.* Qualities, 

It is artificial, 
transparent, 
brittle, 
bright, 
thin, 
hard, 
clear, 
curved. 
The upper face is convex. 
The under face concave. 
The edge circular. 

IJses. — ^To preserve the hands of the watch from being 
injured, and to keep the works from dust. 

LESSON XIV. 

BEOWN SUGAR. 

The idea to be developed by this lesson — native. 

Qualities. 

It is brown. It is useful. 

granulous. vegetable substance, 

sweet. artificial, 

soluble. native, 

fusible. sticky, 

opaque. moist. 

* The children should be ?sked whether there are any parts to this ob- 
ject peculiar to it ; and when, as in the watch glass, there are not, the 
naming of the parts had better be omitted. 



AN ACORN. 93 

Use. — ^To sweeten our food. 

Obtained from the sugar cane, which is cultivated in the 
East and West Indies, and some of the Southern States. 





LESSOl^ XV. 




AN ACOEN. 


Ideas to be developed — oval^ scaly. 


Parts. 


Qualities. 


The cup. 


It is vegetable. 


berry. 


natural. 


nut. 


hard. 


point of the nut. green. 


scar. 


opaque. 


scales. 


The nut is ovaL 


surface. 


bright. 


edges. 


solid. 




The cup is dull. 




The inside is concave. 




smooth. 




The outside is rough. 




brownish. 




scaly. 




The edge is circular. 



LESSON^ XVI. 

A PIECE OF HONEY COMB. 

Ideas to be developed — compressible') hexagonal^ reg- 
ular. 

Parts. Qualities. 

The cells. It is natural. 

divisions. animal production. 



94 


THIRD STEP. LESSON XVII. 


Parts. 




Qualities, 


The edges. 




It is light. 


base of cells. 


fusible. 


corners. 




sticky. 


surface. 




dull. 


faces. 




semi-transparent, 
yellowish, 
thin. _ 

compressible, 
brittle. 
The cells are hexagonal, 
regular, 
hollow. 




LESSON XVII. 






BEFINED SUGAR. 


The ideas to be 


developed by this le^mw—^crystalUr 


amorphous^ refined. 




Parts. 




Qualities. 


The surface. 




It is white. 


edges. 




sweet. 


middle. 




sj)arkling. 


crystals. 




crystalline. 


grains. 




solid. 


pores. 




fusible. 

soluble. 

shapeless or amorphous, 

hard. 

refined. 

nutritious. 

crumbling. 

opaque. 

artificial. 

vegetable substance. 

brittle. 



A COEK. 



95 



Brought from the East and West Indies or the Southern 
States in its raw state. Refined by sugar bakers, and sold 
by grocers in loaves of a conical form. 

LESSOI!^ XVIII. 





A COEK. 


Parts, 




Qualities, 


The ends. 


It 


is light. 


surface. 




compressible. 


faces. 




elastic. 


edges. 




opaque. 

dry. 

light brown. - 



solid. - 
porous. - 
smootho 
cylindrical.- 
duU. 

inflammable, 
vegetable. - 
The form is artificial. 
The substance is natural. 

Uses. — ^To stop bottles, to buoy people up in the water. 
Children to determine what qualities fit it for its use. 



LESSON XIX. 

GLUE. 

Idea to be developed — tenacious. 

Qualities. 
It is translucent. When melted, it is tough. 



mahogany brown. 



adhesive. 



96 



THIRD STEP. LESSON XX. 



Qualities. 
It is hard. When melted, it is sticky, 

solid. elastic, 

animal substance. tenacious, 

artificial. 

LESSON XX. 

PACKTHREAD. 

Ideas to be developed — tioisted^ slender. 

Qualities. 



It is dry. 


It is durable. 


dull. 


light brown. 


tAvistcd. 


vegetable substance. 


flexible. 


inflammable. 


tough. 


soft. 


opaque. 


slender. 


fibrous. 


solid. 


artificial. 


rough. 




LESSOI^ XXI. 




HONEY. 




Qualities. 


It is sweet. 


It is a vegetable substance. 


fluid. 


natural. 


thick. 


nourishincr. 

CD 


liquid. 


healing. 


yellow. 


opaque. 


sticky. 






LESSON XXII 




BUri'ER CUP. 


Parts, 


Qualities. 


The petals. 


It is vegetable. 


margins 


or edges. concave. 



A LADY BIRD. 97 

Parts. Qualities. 

The cnj). It is natural, 

leaflets of cup. odorous, 

stamens. The petals are yellow, 

pistils. glossy in the inside, 

stalk. dull on the outside, 

place of insertion. circular, 

inside. pointed at the place of 

outside. insertion, 

surface. striped. 

opaque. 

pliable. 
The leaflets are greenish. 

thin. 

membranaceous. 

semi-transparent. 

pointed. 
The stalk is green. 
* grooved. 

angular. 

stiif. 

fibrous. 

LESSON XXIII. 

A LADY DIED. 

Ideas to be developed — hemispherical, fictgil^'i jointed. 

Parts. Qualities, 

The head. It is animal, 

eyes. natural, 

feelers or palpi. hemispherical, 

horns, or antennae. The wing cases are red. 
wings. spotted, 

wing cases, or elytra, bright, 

thorax. hard. 

5 



98 THIED STEP. ^LESSON XXIV. 

Parts. Qualities, 

The legs. The wing cases are brittle, 
body. opaque, 

back. stiff, 

spots. The outside is convex, 

surface. The inside is concave, 

claws. One margin straight. 

The other curved. 
The wings are membranaceous, 
pliable, 
thin. 

transparent, 
fragile. 
The body is oval. 

black. 
The legs are jointed, 
short, 
black. 

LESSON XXIV. 





AN OYSTEE. 


Ideas to be developed- 


—marine., pearly., irregular. 


Parts. 




Qualities. 


The valves. 




It is animal. ^ 


hinge. 




opaque.- 


ontside. 




marine. 


inside. 




natural.- 


margin. 


The 


valves are circular. 


impressions. 




hard. 


moUusk. 




stiff. 


scales or laminae. 


pulverable. 




The outside is rough. 






scaly or laminated. 



A FIR CONE. 99 

Qualities, 

The outside is irregular. 

dull. 

dingy brown. 

uneven. 
The inside is pearly. 

bright. 

smooth. 

slightly concave. 
The mollusk is soft. 

edible. 

nutritious. 

cold. 

smooth. 

slippery. 

lesso:n' xxy. 

A riK CONE. 

Ideas to be developed — co7iicaI, tiled or imhricated^ 

keeled. 

Parts. Qualities, 

The scales. It is broTni. 

seeds. opaque, 

top. hard, 

place of insertion. vegetable, 

fibres. natural, 

surface. conical, 

staljj^ tiled or imbricated. 

inflammable, 
odorous. 
The scales are stiff, 
dull. 
The outside is light brown. 



100 THIRD STEP. — ^LESSON XXVI. 

Qualities. 

* The outside is pointed at the top. 

rough. 

irregularly conicaL 
The inside of scales is chestnut color. 

shaded, 
keeled. 

LESSON XXVI. 

EUK. 

Ideas to be developed — tubular, inanimate. 
Parts. Qualities. 

The skin. It is an animal substance, 

hair. It is hairy, 

surface. inanimate, 

points of hair. The hairs are flexible. 

slender, 
soft, 
tubular, 
straight. 
The hairs are pointed. 
The skin is stiff. 
The color and other peculiarities to be decided by the 
specimen presented. 

LESSON XXYII. 

A LAUREL LEAF. 



Parts. 


Qualities. 


The upper face. 


It is oval. 


under face. 


smooth. 


edge or margin. 


pointed. 


point or termination. 


vegetable, 





A 


NEEDLE. 




Parts, 






Qualities. 


The veins. 




It is 


I odorous. 


midrib. 






opaque. 


base. 






bitter. 


stalk. 






stiff, 
long. 



101 



The rib is straight. 

raised, or keeled on 

the under side, 
grooved on the upper 
side. 
The veins are curved. 
The margin is curved. 

slightly toothed. 
The upper face is bright. 
The under face is dull. 



LESSON xxvm. 



A NEEDLE. 



Parts. 

The eye. 
shank, 
point. ^ 



Qualities. 

It is a mineral.^ 
metallic, 
artificial. 



opaque.- 

bright. 

tapering. - 

pointed. - 

slender. - 

useful. - 

gray or steel color. 

hard. 

brittle.- 

solid. 

steel.- 



102 THIED STEP. — ^LESSON XXIX. 

Made of steel, which is a preparation of iron, having 
been subjected to great extremes of heat and cold. 

LESSON XXIX. 

A PLANT AND A STONE. 

To develop the ideas of organs^ orgmiized^ and inor- 
ganized. 

To give the class an idea of organized and inorganized, 
a plant and a stone may be shown ; and questions given, 
such as the following : 

Teacher, — If I put thes-e two into the earth, and visit 
them in a month, what great difference might I expect to 
perceive in them ? 

Children. — ^The plant will have grown ; the stone will 
have remained of the same size. 

Teacher. — How did the plant increase ? 

Children. — It absorbed moisture. 

Teacher. — By what means ? 

Children. — Through its roots and pores. 

Teacher. — ^Did this nourish only the roots ? 

Children, — No. 

Teacher. — You are right ; the sap was produced which 
circulated through the plant by means of vessels. Now 
those parts of vegetables and animals which do something 
are called organs ? What do animals hear with ? What 
do they smell with ? What do they see with ? What do 
they taste with ? What then may you call the ears, noses, 
eyes, and mouths of animals ? 

Children. — Or2:ans. 



A BELL, 103 

Teacher. — l^ame some other organs of animals. 

CMldren, — Hands, feet, heart, and veins. 

Teacher. — Kame some of the organs of vegetables. 

Children.— ^\0q\% stems, leaves, and pores. 

Teacher. — A body possessing organs is called organized. 

Name some organized bodies. 

* 
Children. — A tree, an insect. 

Teacher. — Bodies that do not possess any organs are 
called hiorganized. Name some inorganized bodies or 
substances. 

Children. — ^A stone, water, sugar, lead, and salt. 

The teacher names miscellaneous substances, and the 
children decide whether they are organized or inorganized. 
She then calls upon the children to name all the organized 
bodies they can think of, which are written on the board 
in one column. 

Another column may be made in the same way of inor- 
ganized substances. 

Qualities of Stone. 
It is hard. It is cold, 

inorganized. opaque, 

mineral. solid, 

natural. irregular in form, or amor- 

phous. 

LESSON XXX. 

A BELL. 

Ideas to be developed in this lesson — sonorous and the 
peculiar parts. 

Parts. Qualities. 

The barrel. It is metallic. 



104 THIKD bl\EP. LESSON XXXI. 

Parts. Qualities, 

The ears, cannon. 1 It is artificial. 



handle, I hard. 

according j elastic. 

to the sort. J sonorous. 

clapper. cold. 

rim. . hollow. 

surface. concave. 

inside. heavy. 

outside. rim circular. 

clapper spherical. 
Difierent kinds of bells. 

House bells ^ pulled by wires passing from one part of a 
house to another part v/here they are rung. Church bells, 
suspended at the upper part of the building, pulled by 
ropes; — when there are several bells of difierent tones, 
they form a peal or chime ; — when one is rung slowly, it 
is said to be tolled. Hand bells, swung by the hand — some 
used in houses, some by milkmen, &c. Cow bells, hung 
on the neck of a cow. 

Uses of Bells. — To give notice of difierent things — in 
the house, of difierent people arriving, servants wanted — 
in a church, the time of divine service is marked, deaths 
and funerals announced by tolling, marriages and happy 
events by a peak The cow bell is used to tell where the 
cow is. Horse bells to give warning to people on the 
street of the approach of a sleigh. 

LESSON^ XXXI. 

A WHEEL. 

Ideas to be developed in this lesson — circular, diverge 
ing, and the peculiar parts. 



A WHEEL. 105 

Parts, Qualities, 

The nave. The rim is circular.* 

box. divided, 

spokes. wooden, 

arm of the axletree. thick, 

linchj^in. The tire is circular, 

rim composed of felloes. entire, 

tire or band. iron, 

rivets. thin, 

centre. The spokes are straight, 

circumference. equal in length. 

wooden. 

diverging from 
the nave. 

The relative position and proportion of the different 
parts should form a part of the exercise. 

The nave is in the centre ; the spokes diverge from the 
nave to the rim, and are all of equal length, if not, the rim 
would not form a perfect circle ; the tire is outside the rim, 
and forms, of course, a larger circle than the rim which it 
encloses ; the arm of the axle fits into the box ; the felloes are 
parts of a circle, and are joined together, forming the rim.f 

The children should also be led, as an additional exer- 
cise, to see the use and adaptation of the different parts. 
The box to receive the arm of the axletree upon which the 

* The children will probably say, round. They should be led to see 
that this is a very indefinite term, which they apply to a ball as well as to 
a shilling ; their observation should be directed by questions to the per- 
ception of how a sphere and a circle differ, and the term circular, given 
and applied to the wheel before them, and to absent objects of a similar 
shape. 

f These parts are mentioned in 1 Kings, vii. 33. 
6* 



106 TUIED STEP. — LESSON XXXII. 

wheels turn — the spokes to keep the rim in its circular form 
and to unite the nave and the rim — the tire to keep all the 
parts in their place, and to give strength ; the tire is put 
on when the iron is expanded by great heat, and being 
suddenly cooled, it contracts, and this binds the whole firmly 
together. The linchpin passes through the arm of the axle- 
tree, and keeps it fixed m the box. 

The use of wheels is, by their rotary motion, to impel 
carriages of different kinds; the children might name the 
various vehicles in which they are used ; they might also 
be led to see that no other form than that of a circle 
would answer for a wheel. 

LEsso:Nr XXXII. 

An exercise which gives a pleasing variety to lessons on 
objects, and which calls out thought and conception — con- 
sists in the teacher, instead of presenting an object for ex- 
amination, giving the children a description of one, and 
requiring them from the qualities attributed to it to dis- 
cover what it is. Some judgment is necessary in giving 
such a lesson, that the children may be led to correct their 
hasty conclusions, and to see that it is not one quality which 
decides what a material is, but the combination of several. 
An example is given, to help the teacher in carrying out 
the idea. 

Teacher. — I will tell you the qualities of something I 
am thinking about, and you must try and find out what it 
is. It is white and natural. 

Children,— WiSk ? 

Teacher. — Ko ; it is solid. 



FIEE. 107 

Childre?i.^Ch£L\k ? 

Teacher, — No ; it is vegetable and odorous. 

Children, — ^A white lily ? 

Teacher. — ^No ; for it is friable and highly inflammable. 
Now repeat the qualities I have mentioned and think what 
substance possesses them all. White, natural, solid, vegC' 
table substance, odorous, and highly inflammable. 

Children will not fail to find out that it must be cam- 
phor, having in the third Step had a lesson on this object. 

It will be obvious that the qualities first mentioned are 
common to many substances, without sufiiciently distin- 
guishing any one. The children's conception is therefore 
engaged m callmg up in their minds a variety of objects 
familiar to tbem. The art of the teacher is to keep at 
first in the background distinguishing qualities, so as more 
thoroughly to stimulate the conception, and in the end to 
lead the children to see more clearly the peculiar and dis- 
tinguishing qualities of the substance. 

LESSON XXXIII. 

FIEE. 

Ideas to be developed — consumi7ig^ purifying,, ascend- 

ing. 

Qualities. 
It is bright. It is purifying. 

reddish yellow. hot. 

sf)reading. The flames are pointed, 
consuming. ascending, 

drying. 

JIoio produced and fed. — ^Fire can be produced by fric- 
tion ; rubbmg two pieces of wood or stone briskly togcth- 



108 THIED STEP. ^LESSON XXXIU. 

cr ; the collision of flint and steel occasions sparks that will 
set fire to any inflammable material ; but lucifer matches, 
which are tipped with a very combustible substance, are 
now generally used to produce fire. The fuel that feeds 
fire is either coal, wood, or j)eat. 

Effects of fire. — Some substances, as coal, wood, <fec., it 
consumes, reducing them to ashes. Some, as butter, 
metals, &c., it melts or changes from solids to liquids. 
Some, as water, quicksilver, &c., it changes into steam, or 
vaj)or. Some substances, as dough, clay, &c., it hardens. 
It expands bodies, penetrating through their particles and 
loosening them. Some substances, as metals, it refines, 
driving away impurities. 

Uses. — 1. In domestic life. It warms our houses and 
gives light to us when the natural light of day is removed. 
It cooks our food,^ thus enabling us to profit by the animals 
and vegetables which God has given us. 

2. In manufiictures. By fire, metals are fitted for va- 
rious purposes. Glass, porcelain, brick making, indeed all 
our manufactures, require the aid of fire. It is also fire 
that furnishes us w^ith the steam that enables us to travel 
with such rapidity by sea and land, and which lights our 
streets and houses at night. 

An emblem.^ — There are many instances in the Bible 
of fire being used as an emblem. Thus God is spoken of 
as a " consuming fire." His wrath, when Idndled by sin, 
destroys like fire. Our Saviour is compared to the refiner's 
fire, purifying His people, purging them from the dross of 
sin, as fire acts upon metals. 

* An emblem is a picture which represents one thing to the eye and 
another to the miderstandinf?. 



AN AXCHOR. 109 

LESSON XXXIV. 





AN ANCHOR. 


Parts. 


Qualities, 


The shank. 


It is iron. 


cross-bar 


or stock. heavy. 


arms. 


hard. 


flukes. 


cold. 


ring. 


opaque. 




metallic. 




The shank is perpendicular to 




the beai 




The beam is straight. 




horizontal to the 




shank. 




smaller at the ends. 




sometimes iron. 




sometimes wooden. 




The arms are curved. 




The flukes are pointed. 




sharp. 




Tlie rins: is circular. 



The largest kind of anchor is called the sheet anchor, 
and is only used in times of great danger or in heavy 
gales. 

The anchor is an instrument of iron attached by a cable, 
which passes through the ring to the bows of ships ; when 
the latter are to remain stationary, the anchor is let down 
or cast into the water, and is thrown by the stock into such 
a position that one of the flukes is sure to enter the ground 
perpendicularly ; this keeps the vessel fixed, for any strain 
acting nearly horizontally would rather tend to root the 
arm deeper in its moorings. This operation is called cast- 



110 THIED STEP. ^LESSOX XXXV. 

ing anchor^ and the ship is then said to be riding at an- 
chor / when the anchor is heaved up, the expression used 
is iceighing anchor. When the anchor finds good moorings 
and takes firm hold, the vessel is in safety ; it cannot be 
driven to and fro by the storm, or dashed against rocks by 
the hurricane. 

When the children clearly understand what an anchor 
is, and the office it performs, they should be led to trace 
the analogy between hope and an anchor. The former is 
thrown out from us, and is fixed upon something, and if it 
has a firm grasp it will keej) us steady ; we shall remain un- 
shaken, whatever may assail, as long as the anchor of hope 
retains its hold. The children should be referred to Heb. 
vi., where the anchor is used as the emblem of hope, which 
is described as having entered into that within the veil, 
that is, into the Holy of Holies, the type of Heaven, where 
our great High Priest is for us entered ; anchored on Him, 
the rock of our salvation, we shall be kept immovably fixed 
amidst all the trials and temptations of life. We often 
speak of a person or thing being our sheet anchor, which 
means that on which we altogether depend as our last 
and best resource. 

LESSON XXXV. 

A BALANCE. 

PaHs. 

The lever, or beam. The qualities depend 

pivot or fulcrum. upon the kind of 

scales. balance used in the 

chains connecting tiie lesson. 

scales with the beam. 



A BALANCE. Ill 

The balance is an instrument used to ascertain the ex- 
act weight of anything. It is most essential in trade; 
without such a help barter and exchange would be guess- 
work, and dishonest dealings could not be easily detected. 
When one scale perfectly balances the other, what is held 
in each is equal in weight, and if in one scale standard 
weights are placed, the substance in the other can be accu- 
rately determined. 

The children should endeavor to find out why the 
balance is employed as the emblem of justice, and why, 
whenever justice is represented as a person, she always 
holds a pair of scales in her hand. They will be able to 
trace the analogy between testing a substance as to its 
weight in scales and the exercise of justice, which consists 
in impartially weighing conduct or opinions against a law- 
ful standard, in order to arrive at a just and right judg- 
ment. They will also understand the metaphor used to 
set forth the conduct of Belshazzar : " Thou art weighed 
in the balance, and art found wanting." His life and char- 
acter were in one scale, God's holy law and requirements 
in the other, and the former fell short — was altogether de- 
ficient. 

At this step some exercises^ would be well introduced 
on the connection of different qualities. The children will 
easily be led to discover that all absorbent objects are po- 
rous, that all brittle substances are hard, that all adhesive 
ones are tenacious, all sonorous ones are elastic ; that to be 
malleable and ductile they must be tenacious, their particles 
cohering ; to be elastic, an object must be either exten- 
sible, flexible, or compressible. 



112 • THIRD STEP. LESSON XXXV. 

Children may also with profit exercise their conceptive 
powers in drawing, out of the treasures of their memory, 
examples of objects in which any particular quality is found, 
and classifying them according to the different degree in 
which they possess the quality. Thus objects may be re- 
membered, furnishing a regular gradation from the most 
impenetrable opacity to the clearest transparency; the 
same may be done with hard and soft — from soft as butter 
to as hard as flint, &c. 



INTEODUCTORY EEMAEKS. 113 



FOURTH STEP. 



INTEODUCTORY EEMAEKS. 



The chief aim proposed in this Step is, to exercise the 
children in composing, arranging, and classifying objects, 
and in tracing analogies ; thus developing a higher faculty 
than that of simply observing their qualities. The com- 
plex operation of connecting things by their points of re- 
semblance, and at the same time of distinguishing them 
individually by their points of dissimilarity, prepares for 
one of the highest exercises of our reason ; yet it may be 
carried on in children at a much earlier period than is 
usually imagined, if they are trained to arrange their ideas. 
With this view the spices, liquids, and metals have been 
chosen as forming .a connected series of objects.^' The 
different woods, grains, &c., are good subjects for similar 
instruction. 

In the early lessons, the perceptions simply exercised 
the intuitive faculties, which, being stimulated and direct- 
ed, furnish the mind with ideas. At this point, the process 
commences of regarding them, not simply, but in series and 
relationshi]), and lessons are given to cultivate the discern- 
ment of analogies between physical and moral or spiritual 

* A few lessons on Animals, as also in Geography, have been added. 



114 FOURTH STEP, — LESSON I. 

qualities. The information given should be reproduced by 
the children on their slates or on paper.* 

SPICES. 



LESSON I. 

PEPPER. 

Qualities of Pepper. 
It is hard. It is dry. 

vegetable. dull, 

foreign, f sapid, 

tropical production. pungent, 

wrinkled. odorous, 

spherical. aromatic, 

rough. wholesome, 

black. stimulating, 

preservative. 
* The leading qualities of the objects arc still put down in connection 
with each lesson, for the convenience of the teacher, if she finds it desirable 
to use any of them. As fast, however, as the children become sufficiently 
familiar with any particular quality, and the term expressing it, it is better 
not to continue to repeat it, but only call out those qualities that awaken 
new thoughts and require new terms, or that are peculiarly characteristic 
of the object. This remark applies to previous as well as succeeding les- 
sons. No good can result by the constant repetition of qualities and terms 
already familiar to the children. 

\ Teacher. — If it comes from a foreign country, how do vre get it? 
Children. — It comes in a ship. 

Teacher. — This is called importing ; and sending out of our own coun- 
try is called exporting. What do we call this exchange of production ? 
Children. — Trade or commerce. 

Icacher. — And what are the people called who carry it on ? 
Children. — Merchants. 



NUTMEG. 115 

The pepper plant is a creeping shrub, much resembling 
the vine, and is often called the pepper vine. It is gener- 
ally planted near some thorny bush, among the branches of 
which it entwines itself like ivy. It produces berries in 
clusters : if the fruit is intended for black pepper, it is not 
allowed to ripen, but is collected while green, and rubbed 
by the hands or feet, till the seeds, several of which are 
contained in each berry, are separated. These are exposed 
on mats to the rays of the sun during the day, and are col- 
lected at night in jars, to preserve them from the dew. 
When the berries are intended to be converted into white 
pepper, they are allowed to ripen, and they then become 
red. They are rubbed in a basket, the pulp is removed by 
washing, and the seeds, which are white, are dried. 





LESSON 


II. 




NUTMEG. 




Qualities of Nutmeg. 


It is sapid. 


It 


is foreign. 


hard. 




tropical production. 


oval. 




pungent. 


dingy brown. 


preservative. 


dull. 




pulverable. 


opaque. 




agreeable to the taste, 


. cliy. 




aromatic. 


vegetable. 




odorous. 


natural. 


Surface uneven. 



The nutmeg is the kernel of a fruit which is the pro- 
duce of a tree resembling our cherry tree, both in size and 
growth. It is found in the East Indies. The external 
covering of the fruit is a husk ; this opens when ripe, and 



116 FOURTH STEP. — ^LESSON II. 

displays a thin scarlet membrane, called mace ; this being 
carefully removed, there still remains a woody shell which 
surrounds the nutmeg. The nuts are first dried in the sun, 
and then placed on a frame of bamboos over a slow fire, 
until the kernels, on being shaken, rattle in their shells. 

EEMAEKS ON WOEDS. 

Teacher, — ^Why is nutmeg said to be odorous ? 

Children. — Because it has a smell. 

Teacher. — ^Why aromatic ? 

Children. — Because it has that pungent smell distin- 
guished by the name aromatic. 

Teacher. — Are all things that are aromatic also odorous ? 

Children. — ^Yes. 

Teacher. — ^Are all things that are odorous also aromatic? 

Children. — ISTo. 

Teacher. — Is an onion odorous ? 

Children. — Yes. 

Teacher. — Are these smells alike ? 

Children. — No. 

Teacher. — Which of these terms includes every kind of 
smell ? 

Children. — Odorous. 

Teacher. — If you were to put all odorous substances 
into one class, and all aromatic into another, what would 
you say of the two classes ? 

Children. — ^That the class containing all odorous objects 
would be much the largest; it would include the aromatic 
substances. 

Teacher. — A term which includes all the varieties of one 



MACB. 117 

kind or quality of substance, is called a generic term, 
while that which marks one of the species, is called a 
specific term. Which is the generic term, odorous or aro- 
matic ? 

Children. — O dorous. 

Teacher. — Why is this a generic term ? 

Children. — Because it includes every variety of odors. 

Teacher. — ^What kind of term is aromatic ? 

Children, — ^A specific term. 

Teacher.—Wlvf ? 

Children. — Because it applies only to one particular 
kind of smell. 

Give examples of generic terms and of a specific term 
applicable to each of them. 

Children. — Odorous, fragrant; colored, red; foreign, 
Chinese production. 

The class should determine, in succeeding lessons, what 
terms are generic and what specific. 

LESSON ni. 

MACE. 

Qualities of Mace, 

It is pungent. It is natural. 

agreeable to the taste. inflammable, 

aromatic. medicinal, 

orange red. dry. 

dull. pulverable. 

opaque. membranaceous, 

thin. preservative, 

fibrous. imported. 



118 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON Til, 

It is brittle. It is sapid, 

foreign. stimulating, 

tropical. 

Mace is the covering between the shell of the nutmeg 
and its external husk. 

EEMAEKS ON WOEDS. 

Teacher. — " Foreign." Should you call mace a foreign 
production if you were in the place where it grows ? 

Children. — Ko. It is only foreign to the countries 
where it does not grow. 

Teacher. — Where would you call it pungent and aro- 
matic ? 

Children. — Everywhere. 

Teacher. — Can it be mace Vvdthout being foreign ? 

Children. — Yes. 

Teacher. — Can it he mace without being pungent and 
aromatic ? 

Children . — IsTo. 

Teacher. — Which then of these qualities belong to mace 
as mace ? 

Children. — ^Pungent and aromatic. 

Those qualities which determine anything to be what it 
is, are called essential. 

Qualities which are not essential are called accidental. 

What qualities of mace are essential ? 

What qualities of mace are accidental ? 

Why are pungent and aromatic said to be essential 
qualities ? 

Why is it that its being foreign is said to be accidental ? 



CINNAMON. 119 

LESSON IV. 

CINNAMON. 

Qualities of Cinnamon. 
It is light brown, and gives name to a color, 
thin. It is inflammable. 



brittle. 


dry. 


preservative. 


vegetable. 


aromatic. 


natural. 


pungent. 


foreign. 


agreeable to the taste. 


light. 


opaque. 


pulverable. 


hard. 


medicinal. 


sweet. 


stimulating. 



Cinnamon is in the inner bark of the branches of a 
kind of laurel tree, growing in Ceylon and Malabar. The 
branches of three years old are selected as furnishing the 
best cinnamon ; the outside bark is scraped off; the branch- 
es are then ripped up lengthways with a knife, and the in- 
ner bark is gradually loosened, till it can be entirely taken 
off. Exposure to the sun causes it to curl up. The pieces 
of bark so curled are called quills, and the smaller ones are 
inserted into the larger. 

lesso:n" v. 

GINGER. 

Qualities of Ginger, 
It is fibrous. It is solid. 

knotty. hard, 

sapid. preservative. 



120 



FOURTH STEP. LESSOI^ VI. 



Qualities. 


Qualities. 


It is rough. 


It is light. 


jagged. 


yellowish brown. 


vegetable. 


pulverable. 


tropical. 


medicinal. 


foreign. 


stimulating. 


aromatic. 


wholesome. 


pungent. 


opaque. 


dry. 


inflammable. 


dull. - 





Ginger is the root of a plant resembling a reed, which 
grows both in the East and "West Indies. The root does 
not strike to any considerable depth in the earth, but 
spreads out far in every direction. When first dug . up, it 
is soft, and eaten by the Indians as a salad. If intended 
for exportation, it is placed in bundles, and dried m the sun. 



LESSON 


VI, 




ALLSPICE. 




Parts. 




Qualities. 


The skin. ■ 


It 


is aromatic. 


seeds. 




odorous. 


partition of seed vessel. 




pungent. 


point of insertion. 




spherical. 

brown. 

speckled. 

organized. 

natural. 

vegetable. 

dry. 

opaque. 

tropical. 

dull. 



A CLOYK. 121 

Qualities. Qualities. 

It is stimulating. It is hard, 
inflammable. friable, 

sapid. wrinkled, 

conservative. 

Allspice or pimento is the dried berry of a species of 
myrtle, indigenous in the West Indies ; it is a most beauti- 
ful and fragrant tree, producing numerous bunches of white 
flowers, to which succeed the berries ; these are gathered 
by the hand and spread out in the sun to dry. In this 
operation they lose their former color, and become brown. 
When the seeds rattle in the shell, they are known to be 
sufficiently dry, and are packed in bags for exportation. 
The flavor of pimento is considered to unite that of the 
other spices ; hence the name of allspice. 



LI 


CSSON VII. 






A CLOVE. 




Parts. 




Qualities. 


The calyx or cup. 


It is aromatic. 


tube. 




odorous. 


leaflets of cup. 


• 


pungent. 


points of leaflets. 




brown. 


bud. 




organized. 


edges. 




natural. 

vegetable. 

dry. 

opaque. 

tropical. 

imported. 

dull. 



122 FOUllTH STEP. — LESSON VII. 

Qualities. Qualities, 

It is stimulating. The bud is spherical, 

hard. The tube is long, 

inflammable. The leaflets are pointed, 
preservative. 

Cloves are the unexpanded flower buds and calyx of a 
species of laurel which grows in the West Indies. At a 
certain season of the year, the clove tree produces a pro- 
fusion of flowers in clusters ; they are gathered before the 
flower opens, when the four points of the calyx project, 
and the petals are folded one over the other, forming a bud 
about the size of a pea. After they are gathered, they are 
exposed for some time to the smoke of a wood fire, and 
then to the rays of the sun. 

At the conclusion of the lesson on spices, the chil- 
dren should be called upon to mention those qualities 
w^hich they have found common to all ; as aromatic, pun- 
gent, dry, tropical, stimulating, vegetable. Then let some 
other similar substance be presented to them, such as 
mustard. 

Teacher. — Is this a spice ? 

Children. — ISTo. 

Teacher. — ^Why not ? 

Children. — It has not the qualities of a spice. 

Teacher. — If I showed you a substance with which you 
were not previously acquainted, and you found that it pos- 
sessed the esseritial qualities of the spices you have exam- 
ined, what would you consider it to be ? 

Children. — A spice. 

Teacher. — To what then do you apply the term spice ? 



A CLOVE. 123 

Children. — To a set of natural productions possessing 
certain qual\jLies. 

Teacher. — When a number of things are aiTanged to- 
gether, each having similar qualities, what would you call 
the collection ? What would you call a number of boys 
who are placed together because they are nearly equal in 
knowledge ? 

Children. — A class. 

Teacher. — What, then, would you call a collection of 
substances that possess the same qualities ? 
• Children. — A class. 

Teacher. — ^What may you call all substances which are 
aromatic, pungent, tropical, &c. ? 

Children. — A class. 

Teacher — And what is the name of that class ? 

Children. — Spice, 

Teacher. — What, then, does the term spice express ? 

Children. — ^A class of substances, j^ossessing the quali- 
ties aromatic, pungent, &c. 

Teacher. — Tell me all the substances belonging to that 
class. 

Children. — ^Pepper, nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, ginger, 
allspice, cloves. 

Teacher. — Are all the substances of this class alike in 
all respects ? 

Children. — ISTo. 

Teacher. — How can you tell one spice from another ? 

Children. — By each having some qualities peculiar to 
itself. 

Teacher. — Name something in each spice which distin- 
guishes it. 



124 FOUHTU STEP. LESSON VIII. 

Children. — Ginger is a root ; pepper is a seed ; nutmeg 
is a kernel ; mace is the membranaceous covering: of that 
kernel ; cinnamon is a bark ; pimento is a seed vessel j the 
clove is a cup and flower bud. 

OlSr LIQUIDS. 



LESSON VIII. 

WATER. 

Qualities of Water. 
It is fluid. It is wholesome, 

transparent. tasteless. 

clear. cold, 

colorless. inodorous, 

liquid. natural, 

useful. solvent, 

bright. refreshing, 

incompressible, except penetrating. 

by immense power. cleansing, 

eflective. cooling, 

drinkable. fertilizing. 
Some waters are medicinal. 

Different hinds of Water. 

Rain. Medicinal, 

spring. hot s^^ring. 

sea, or salt. stagnant, 
river. 

Different states of Water. 

Ice. Fog. 

snow. cloud, 

hail. vapor, 

rain. dew. 

mist. steam. 



WATER. 125 

Natural Collections of Water, 
Oceans. Lakes, 

seas. ponds, 

rivers. springs. 

Operations of Water. — ^It purifies, evaporates, freezes, 
quenches thirst, cools, finds its OAvn level, penetrates, fertil- 
izes, is a solvent, extinguishes fire, separates easily into por- 
tions which assume a spherical form. 

Movement of Water. 
Teacher. — ^In what way do oceans and seas move ? 
Children. — ^In waves. 

Teacher. — When you are on the sea shore, what difier- 
ence do you observe in the waves during the course of the 

day? 

Children.— K\> one time they are coming in ; at another 

going out. 

^eacAer.— This is called the ebb and flow of the tide. 
What is the movement of a river ? 

Children. — It flows. 

Teacher. — What eventually becomes of its waters ? 

Children. — ^They are lost in some ocean or sea. 

T'eac/ier.— What is that which with us is always flowing 

on? 

Childreyi. — Our life. 

Teacher. — ^To what does it conduct us ? 

Children. — ^To eternity. 

Teacher.— Oi what, then, is a river a fit emblem or 
representation ? 

Children. — Of life. 



126 FOURTH STEr. LESSON IX. 

Teacher. — Find some passages in the Bible where ^ 
river is used as an emblem of life. 

Teacher. — You find the particles of water run about ; 
will the particles of wood do the same ? 

Children. — N"o. 

TeacAe^v— -Why will not the particles of wood flow 
about ? 

Children. — Because they stick close together. 

Teacher. — This is called cohering. When one substance 
is joined to another it is said to adhere (or stick to) ; when 
the particles of the same substance stick together, they are 
said to cohere. 

The particles of a liquid cohere very slightly, and are 
therefore easily separated. The particles of a solid cohere 
closely. 

LESSON IX. 

OIL. 

Qualities of Oil. 

It is fluid. It is light, 

yellowish. thick, 

semi-transparent. inflammable, 

soft. oleaginous, 

liquid. Some oils are vegetable, 

penetrating. Some are animal, 

emolhent. When bad, it is rancid, 

greasy. odorous. 

The vegetable oil is expressed from olives, and is im- 
ported chiefly from Italy and the south of France. It is 
also obtained from nuts and some other fruits, and from 
seeds. 



BEEK. 127 

The animal oil is procured from the blubber or flit of 
the whale and seal. 

Birds are furnished Vvdth little bags containing oil ; with 
this they plume their feathers, and it causes rain and moist- 
ure to trickle ofl'. Without this provision, the feathers of 
water fowl would imbibe so much moisture, that they would 
become too heavy to float on the water. 





LESSON 


X. 




BEER. 




It is liquid, 
fluid. 


Qualities of Beer. 

It is artificial, 
odorous. 


orange color. 

wholesome. 

fermented. 




semi-transparent, 
slightly intoxicating, 
strengthening. 



Beer is composed of malt, hops, and water, boiled to- 
gether. Hops are the blossoms of a creeping plant, culti- 
vated in many portions of this country ; the place where 
they grow is called a ho2y yard. The tub in which the 
malt is first steeped is called a tnaslimg tub / that which 
holds the beer when made, a vat ; when wanted for con- 
sumption, or sale, it is put into barrels. 

Malt is made of barley, by the following process. A 
quantity of barley is soaked in water for two or three days ; 
tlie water being afterward drained off, the grain heats 
spontaneously, swells, bursts, becomes sweet, and ferments. 
Vegetables, during decomposition, undergo several degrees 
of fermentation ; the first (that above described) is called 



128 rOUETH STEP. LESSON XI. 

the saccharine fermentation^ from the sweetness it pro- 
duces ; sacchar-2<m being the Latin for sugar. In conse- 
quence of this decomposition, which is similar to that which 
takes place in seed in the ground, the barley begins to 
sprout, but this vegetation is stopped by putting it into a 
kiln, where it is well dried by a gentle heat. 

LESSOR XI. 

rOREIGN WHITE WINE. 



Qualities of 


White Wine. * 


It is yellowish, 
bright, 
fluid, 
liquid, 
fermented. 


It is artificial. 

semi-transparent, 
sapid, 
medicinal, 
stimulating. 


spirituous, 
intoxicating, 
heating, 
vegetable. 


clear. 

strengthening, 
yielding to the touch. 



Wine is made from the grape, the fruit of the vine, 
which is cultivated in vinei/ards. The season of its gath- 
ering is called the vintage. The grapes, v/hen gathered, 
are placed in a loine ^9?^e55, by which the juice is ex- 
pressed ; this juice undergoes a fermentation, and becomes 
wine. This is the second fermentation which vegetable 
matter undergoes; it is called the vinous fermentation^ 
from its producing wine ; vinum being the Latin word 
for wine. 



VINEGAK. 



129 



LESSOisr xn. 

VIXEGAE. 

Qualities of Vi7iegar. 



It is acid. 

orano'e-brown color. 

liquid. 

fluid. 

yielding to the touch. 

penetrating. 

stimulating:. 



It is vegetable, 
artificial, 
medicinal, 
odorous, 
preservative, 
semi-transparent, 
fermented. 



Uses. — To flavor food ; for pickling ; for medicine. 





LESSON xni. 




INK. 




Qualities of Inh. 


It is black. 


It is astringent. 


useful. 


fluid. 


opaque. 


yielding to the touch. 


artificial. 


poisonous. 


liquid. 


\ 



Ink is made of galls, sulphate of iron, gum, and water. 
Galls are found upon the oak ; they are occasioned by a 
little insect, which pierces the bark of the tree, and lays its 
eggs in the hole which it has formed. The torn vessels of 
the tree discharge a portion of their contents ; this harden- 
ing, forms at first a defence for the eggs, and subsequently 
food for the caterj^illars they produce ; these latter cat 
their way out of their confinement, before they change into 
the perfect insect. Iron dissolved in suljDhuric acid is 
6* 



loO rOUP.TII STEP. LESSON XIV. 

called sulphate of iron ; when this is applied to the acid 
of the galls it becomes black, upon which quality the utility 
of ink depends. A little gum is added, to cause the ink to 
adhere to the paper. 

LESSOR XIV. 

MILK. 



It is white. 


Qualities 


of 
It 


3£ilh 
is natural. 


iiuid. 

liquid. 

wholesome. 






opaque. 

yielding to the touch. 

emollient. 


sweet. 






nutritious. 



An animal substance. When fresh, it is warm. 

Uses. — For animals to feed their young ; for making 
cheese and butter ; to drink. 

The milk of coyv^s is that most generally used by man. 
Invalids drink the milk of asses. In Tartary the milk of 
mares is used ; in Switzerland that of goats ; in the northern 
countries that of reindeer ; in Arabia that of camels. 

The teacher will find it a very improving and inter- 
esting exercise, to take two substances and compare them 
together — as water and milk — requiring the class to find 
out in what respects they are both alike. They are both 
fluid, liquid, cool, incompressible, penetrating, natural, &c. 
The quahties by which they are distinguished from each 
other should then bo mentioned. The water is transpa- 
rent, the milk is opaque ; the water is colorless ; the milk 
is white ; the water is tasteless, the milk is sweet, &c. 

Liquids possess qualities by which they are very clearly 



ox METALS. 131 

distinguished from other substances. They may all become 
solid ; they are all fluid and incompressible ; their parts 
easily separate, forming into spheres or drops ; they pene- 
trate into the pores of substances ; and they find their own 
level. The last circumstance can easily be proved to the 
pupils by means of a siphon. Having named the proper- 
ties co7nmo7i to all liquids, the class should also be required 
to mention the quahties ijecullar to each^ as in the lessons 
on spices. 

Water is transparent, colorless, tasteless, inodorous, 
bright. 

Oil is yellowish, thick, emollient, semi-transparent, 
greasy, inflammable. 

Beer is orange colored, bitter, spirituous, artificial, fer- 
mented. 

White wine is bright, yellowish, intoxicating, stimulat- 
ing, fermented. 

Yinegar is acid, orange colored, semi-transparent, fer- 
mented. 

Ink is black, bright, opaque, artificial. 

Milk is white, opaque, sweet, nourishing, natural. 

The children might determine which of these Tvould 
form a particular class within the general class of liquids ; 
as beer, w^ine, vinegar, united together, because they are 
fermented liquids. 



132 FOUKTH STEP. — ON METALS. 

O:^ METALS. 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE METALS. 

Occurrence. — The metals form a class of bodies belong- 
ing to the mineral kingdom. They are seldom found in a 
pure or uncombined state, but are almost always united to 
various other substances. The compounds so formed have 
not the distinguishing characters of metals, and they are 
termed ores, — as lead ore, iron ore, &c. Some of the 
metals are found in a pure state, when they are termed 
native, as native gold, native mercury, &c., &c. In their 
pure state metals are supposed to be simple substances, or 
elements, — that is, not to be compounds, or mixtures of 
other bodies. Iron, for example, is regarded as an ele- 
ment, because it cannot be made by the union of other 
substances, nor can any substance different from itself be 
obtained from it. 

Distinguisliing Characters. — ^The metals are distin- 
guished from all other bodies by possessing the following 
characters : — ^They have (when the surface is clean and un- 
tarnished) a peculiar brightness, termed the metallic lustre ; 
they are good conductors of heat, so that, if heat is applied 
to one part of a piece of metal, it is raj^idly conveyed to 
every portion ; and they are also conductors of electricity, 
hence the employment of copper rods to convey the light- 
ning (which might otherwise destroy a building) safely into 
the ground. Many compound mineral bodies that are not 
metals also possess metallic lustre, but are not conductors 
of heat or electricity. 



GEJ^ERAL OBSEKVATIONS. 133 

Mejlectors of Light . — The lustre of metals depends upon 
their power of reflectmg or throwing back the light which 
falls upon them. The light from the sun, or any other 
source, may, when it falls upon a substance, pass through it, 
as is the case with glass — the body is then termed transpa- 
rent ; or it may be absorbed by it, as is the case with a 
dull black board, or with velvet — the substance is then said 
to be opaque ; or it maybe thrown back again, or reflected. 
This power of reflection is possessed by metals to a much 
greater degree than by any other bodies ; therefore, when 
it is wished to throw as much as j)ossible of the light of a 
flame in one particular direction, a reflector of metal is em- 
ployed, as in carriage lamps, lighthouses, &c. 

Mejlectors of Heat. — The heat which accomjjanies the 
liglit of the sun, or that thrown out by a fire or any heated 
body, is reflected by polished metals in precisely the same 
manner as light ; therefore bright metallic surfaces are used 
in reflecting-ovens, meat screens, &c. When metals are 
employed as reflectors of heat or light, it is requisite that 
they should be brightly polished, as it is only when in that 
state that they reflect well. 

Conductors of Heat. — ^The metals are better conductors 
of heat than any other solid bodies, a circumstance which 
occasions several of the peculiar efiects produced by them. 
If the hand is placed upon a piece of metal somewhat cooler 
than itself, the natural warmth is rapidly abstracted and 
conveyed to all parts of the metal ; hence metals are fre- 
quently spoken of as cold substances ; if, on the contrary, 
the hand is placed on a piece of metal warmer than the 
body, it imparts its heat with equal facility, the portion 



134 FOUKTH STEP. — ON METALS. 

cooled having its temperature rapidly restored by the heat 
from the surrounding parts ; it follows that metals slightly 
warmer than the hand feel hot, and will inflict more severe 
burns than non-conducting substances at a much higher 
temperature. 

Conductors of Electricity. — The power of conducting 
electricity exists in metals to an infinitely greater degree 
than in any other substances. It is one of their properties 
most important to man. The natural electricity of the 
thunder clouds is safely conveyed into the ground by a 
lightning conductor of copper, and the electricity artificially 
produced is conveyed instantaneously thousands of miles 
by the wires of the electric telegraph, which, by causing 
the points of two magnetic needles to be directed as re- 
quired to either side, produces signs which stand for letters, 
and thus conveys messages immense distances in an infinite- 
ly short space of time. 

Opacity. — ^The metals are more opaque than other 
bodies. Even wdien beaten into thin leaves, they do not 
allow light to pass through. Silver leaf, for example, only 
___!___ part of an inch in thickness, is perfectly opaque. 
The gold leaf of commerce, which is about 75 oVo o ^^ ^^ 
inch in thickness, is transparent. On looking through it 
against the light, all objects are readily seen, having the 
same appearance as if looked at through green glass. 

Specific Gravity or Weight. — The weight of the metals 
varies greatly ; some of them are the heaviest bodies 
known, while others are so light that they w^ill float on 
water. These latter, however, are not common, being only 
known to experimental chemists. In the following list, 



GENERAL OBSEKVATIONS. 



135 



the specific gravity of the more important metals only is 
given : 



Platinum, 

Gold, 

Mercury, 

Lead, 

Silver, 

Copper, . 

Iron (-wrought). 

Tin, 

Zinc, 

Aluminum, 





22.069 


• 


. 19.250 




13.600 


. 


. 11.381 




10.4'70 


. 


89.00 




'78.00 


. 


73.00 




71.00 


• 


25.00 



The weight of a cubic foot of the common metals is as 
follows : 

Lead, one cubic foot weighs, . . . . 710 lbs. 

Copper (cast), 549 

Brass, 623 

Steel, . 490 

Wrought iron (closely hammered), , . 485 

Wrought iron, 475 

Cast iron, 450 

Zinc, 439 

Hardness — The metals vary very much in hardness. 
Some of the more uncommon are sufficiently soft to be 
moulded easily by the fingers. Lead can be scratched by 
the nail ; tin, zinc, gold, and silver may be cut with a knife; 
copper is harder, and iron greatly surpasses all common 
metals in this respect. 

Brittleness. — Some few of the metals, as antimony and 
bismuth, are so brittle that they may be powdered, and 
cast iron and cast zinc are readily broken. 

Malleability. — Others, on being hammered, spread out 



136 FOUETn STEP. ON METALS. 

into thin leaves. Gold possesses this property in the high- 
est degree. It may be beaten into leaves so thin that, 
although quite free from, visible holes, sixty square inches 
Vfill not weigh one grain ; and 300,000 of the leaves, if 
piled on each other, would not exceed an inch in thickness. 
In addition to gold — silver, platinum, copper, zinc, and lead 
furnish examples of malleable metals. 

Ductility. — The malleable metals are also ductile — that 
is, they can be drawn out into wires. Gold is one of the 
most ductile of the metals, — a single grain may be drawn 
out into a wire 550 feet long. Silver, platinum, iron, cop- 
per, zinc, tin, and lead are also ductile. The method 
adopted for drawing metals into wires is to form the metal 
into a bar or cylinder : this is drawn by great force through 
a hole in a steel plate, somewhat smaller than itself, and is 
consequently lessened in size and increased in length by 
the operation. It is then drawn through a still smaller 
hole ; again through one still less, and so on, until the wire 
is of the degree of fineness required. 

Tenacity. — The strength of wires does not, as might be 
imagined, correspond with the ductility of the metals of 
which they are formed. Iron, when made into steel, is by 
far the most tenacious metal; its wire is stronger than one 
of equal size formed from any other metal, although, in 
point of ductility, it is surpassed by gold, silver, and plati- 
num. The tenacity of some of the metals greatly surpasses 
that of all other substances. The following: list shows the 
number of tons which a rod one inch square is capable of 
holding up before breaking : 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 137 

Lead, about | of a ton. 

Tin " 2 tons. 

Cast iron, nearly, 9 " 

Copper, ....*. 15 " 

Bar iron, 25 " 

Steel, 59 " 

Fusibility. — All the metals are capable of being melted 
or fused by heat, although they vary very much in their 
deo-rees of fusibility. The heat that always exists in tem- 
perate climates is sufficient to melt one metal — mercury; 
but in the colder regions of the earth, where the tempera- 
ture is low, it assumes the soUd form. Of the other com- 
mon metals, tin, lead, and zine melt below a red heat; coi> 
per, silver, and gold require a strong red or white heat ; 
cast iron melts at a bright white heat ; pure wrought iron 
is one of the least fusible, and requires the greatest degree 
of heat that can be obtained from a smith's forge to 

melt it. 

Volatilitij.—SQ\Qr2l of the metals ar« volatile, rising in 
vapor when heated. Mercury slowly evaporates at all tem- 
peratures above the natural heat of the human body, and 
boils away rapidly below redness ; zinc also is volatile at a 
high red heat ; the other common metals are fixed in the fire. 

Compounds of the Metals.— TnQ metals «an be united 
not only with each other, but with several of the non- 
metalHc elements, as sulphur, cai-bon, &c. When the 
metals are melted together, the compounds are called 
ALLOYS. These possess the characters of metals, and are 
of great use in the arts. The most important alloys are- 
brass, formed of copper and zinc ; pewter, of tin, copper, 
.&e..; German silver, of nickel, copper, and zinc; solder. 



138 FOURTH STEP. — METALS. 

of tin, lead, &g. When mercury is present, the name 
amalgam is given to the compound ; the most important 
amalgam is one of tin, used for silvering looking glasses. 
It is one of the most remarkable properties of alloys that 
they generally melt more readily than either of the metals 
of which they are formed. The use of solder by plumb- 
ers and workers in tin, zinc, &c., mainly depends upon its 
being more easily melted than the metals which it is em- 
ployed to unite. 

The compounds of the metals with the non-metallic 
substances are very important. When the metals unite 
with the oxygen of the air, compounds are formed termed 
rusts or oxides. Some metals have little disposition to 
unite with oxygen— that is, to rust ; hence they remain 
untarnished : as gold, silver, and mercury. Others, as 
zinc and lead, form a thin layer of rust on the surface, 
which protects the metal beneath from further change. 
Others, as iron, rust or oxidize only in damp air. 

Many of the metals unite with sulphur, forming, as 
before observed, compounds called sulphurets, or sulphates. 
The common ores of lead and copper are sulphurets of 
those metals. Silver, although it does not rust in pure air, 
unites quickly with any sulphur that may be present, either 
from the escape of coal gas or from any decaying animal 
substances, and becomes tarnished by the formation of a 
thin layer of black sulphuret of silver. 

General Conversation on the 3Ietals. 

REMARK. 

In giving the following lessons, it is desirable to pre- 



GOLD. 139 

sent the specimens to the class in their several natural and 
artificial states. The teaclier should be particularly care- 
ful to direct the attention of the children to those qualities 
in the metal under consideration, upon which its uses de- 
pend, leading them to trace the adaptation of qualities to 
certain uses. 

LESSON XV. 

GOLD. 

Qualities of Gold. 

It is a perfect metal. It is pliable, 
malleable.* 1. compact, 

ductile. 2. yellow, 

tenacious. 3. solid, 

heavy. 4. opaque, 

indestructible. briUiant. 

* A solid piece of gold and some leaf gold should be presented to the 
class, and the extreme lightness and thinness of the leaf may be felt. 

Teacher. — How was the gold made so thin ? 

Children. — It was beaten out. 

Teacher. — With what, do you think? 

Children. — With a hammer. 

Teacher. — All things that can be thus extended by beating are called 
malleable. Could glass be thus beaten out ? Could chalk ? Camphor ? 
What qualities prevent them from being malleable ? 

Children. — Glass is brittle. Chalk is crumbling. 

Teacher. — What qualities in gold do you think render it malleable ? 

Children. — Its being tenacious. 

Teacher. — What other quality in gold depends upon its being tena- 
cious ? 

Children. — It is ductile. 

Teacher. — ^Ductile means capable of being drawn out. 



140 FOURTH STEP. METALS. 

It is fusible. It is reflective, 
incombustible, except " sonorous. 

by electricity. Not affected by any acid 
soft, compared Avith but aqua regia.* 

other metals. 

It is considered a perfect metal, because it does not 
lose any of its weight when fused, nor suffer any change. 
Most metals become oxydated.f 

When the children understand fully the different cjuali- 
ties, the teacher may mention to them the facts that 23rove 
the extraordinary degree in which the peculiar qualities 
exist in the metal. 

1. Malleable. A grain of gold, the size of a pin's head, 
may be beaten out to cover a space of fifty square inches. 

2. Ductile. A grain of gold can be drawn out to cover 
a wire of 352 feet in length ; a guinea can be drawn out 
to reach nine miles and a half. 

3. Tenacious. A wire one-tenth of an inch in diameter 
will support 500 pounds without breaking. 

4. Heavy. It is nineteen times heavier than water of 
the same bulk. 

Uses of Gold. 
When alloyed J with copper, gold is used as coin, and 

* Aqua regia (royal water) is a mixture of muriatic acid and nitric 
add. 

f Substances are oxydated when they are combined with a certain 
portion of oxygen. 

\ The combinations of metals with each other are called, in chemis- 
ti'y, alloys ; but this term is commonly employed to designate those sub- 
stances that lessen the value of any with which they are united. 



GOLD. 141 

for ornamental purposes ; for the latter it is fitted by its 
brilliancy and beauty, and also because it is not liable to 
tarnish. 

The gold used in coinage, called standard gold, consists 
of a combination of about twenty-two parts of gold, and 
two of copper. 

Gold thread is made by covering silk or silver with 
gold beaten very thin. 

Gilding is the art of covering the surface of a sub- 
stance with gold ; this is effected by applying it in a state 
of leaf, or liquid gold, to a surface covered by a cement. 

Quicksilver unites with gold, communicating to it a 
portion of its own fluidity ; it has from this circumstance 
been used in gilding buttons — an effect which is produced 
very rapidly by the following process: The metals are 
mixed together, and the buttons immersed in the com- 
pound. They are then exposed to a great heat, by which 
the quicksilver is evaporated, and the gold is left upon the 
buttons. 

The purple color used in painting porcelain is obtained 
from gold. 

Gold is beaten into leaves upon a smooth block of mar- 
ble fitted into a wooden frame, about two feet square ; on 
three sides there is a high ledge, and the front has a flap 
of leather attached to it, which the workman uses as an 
apron to preserve the fragments that fall off. There are 
three kinds of animal membrane used in the oj^eration. 
For interlaying with the gold at first, the smoothest and 
closest vellum is procured; and when the gold becomes 
thin, this is exchanged for much finer skin, made of the 



142 FOURTH STEP. ^ilETALS. 

entrails of oxen prepared for this purpose, and hence called 
goldheateTs* skin : the whole is covered with i^archment, 
to prevent the hammer from injuring it. After the gold 
has been reduced to a sufficient degree of thinness, it is 
put between paper which has been well smoothed and 
rubbed with red bole, in order to prevent it adhering to 
the gold. 

Geographical and Geological Situation of Gold. 

Gold is found principally in hot climates, eitlijer native 
or as an ore. A metal is called native when it occurs in 
nature pure, and an ore when mixed with other substances. 
Gold is found in mines, in Brazil, Peru, Mexico, and Califor- 
nia. Part of the western coast of Africa is called the Gold 
Coast, from the gold dust brought down by the natives to 
trade with. A great quantity of gold is obtained in the 
form of fine sand, from American and African rivers ; and 
in small quantities from the Danube, the Rhine, and the 
Khone. It is supposed to be carried down by the moun- 
tain torrents. The wandering tribes of gypsies employ 
themselves in washing it from tlie beds of European rivers. 
The Himalaya mountains in Asia are rich in gold. It some- 
times occurs in the veins which run through mxountains, 
and sometimes in rounded masses in soils that are evi- 
dently the ruins of rocks. The mines which formerly 
yielded the largest quantities of gold were those of Peru 
and Lima ; the principal in Europe are those of Hungary 
and Saltzburg. There have been discovered large quantities 
of gold in California and in Australia, which lias caused a 
comparative abundance of this metal. The mode of ex- 



SILVER. 143 

trading gold from the ore is by reducing the whole to a 
fine powder, and mixing it with quicksilver. The latter 
unites with every particle of gold, but, being incapable of 
forming a combination with any but metallic substances, it 
separates the gold from the earth with which it is inter- 
mixed. The quicksilver, which has absorbed the gold, is 
then evaporated by means of heat, leaving the pure metal 
in the vessel. 

LESSON XVI. 

SILVEE. 

Qualities of Silver. 

It is malleable. 1. It is white, 

ductile. 2. solid, 

tenacious. 3. compact, 

heavy. 4. natural, 

indestructible. brilliant, 

fusible. reflective, 

soft. sweetly sonorous, 

flexible. not afiected by com- 

a perfect metal. mon acids, 
opaque. 

1. Malleable. Silver can be reduced to a degree of 
thinness nearly equal to that of which gold is capable. 

2. Ductile. It can also be drawn out into the finest 
wire. 

3. Tenacious. A wire one tenth of an inch in thick- 
ness will support 377 pounds without breaking. 

4. Heavy. It is about eleven times heavier than 
water. 



% 
144 FOUllTII STE1\ METALS. 

Uses of Silver. 

Silver is used for coin, and is then combined with cop- 
per, to render it harder and better adapted to receive a 
line and sharp impression on being cast. It does not lose 
its white color by its mixture with copper. The same 
alloy is employed for ornamental purposes. 

Silver is much used as a casing to copper utensils, to 
render them more pleasing to the sight, and also to pre- 
vent the formation of the poison extracted by acids from 
copper. The most permanent plating is effected by tak- 
ing two thin plates of silver and copper, the former in the 
proportion of one to twelve of the latter ; a little pow- 
dered borax is placed between the two metals to promote 
their fusion ; and then, after being exposed to a white 
heat, they will be found firmly united. The substance is 
passed between rollers till the whole is of the proper thick- 
ness for the intended manufacture. 

Silver dissolved in aquafortis (nitric acid) yields crys- 
tals, which, being afterward melted in crucibles, form w^hat 
is called lunar caustic. This preparation is of considerable 
value in surgical operations, being employed to burn away 
diseased flesh, and also for consuming warts, wens, and 
other excrescences of the skin. Indelible or permanent 
ink, used for marking linen, is made by dissolving nitrate 
of silver (lunar caustic) in water, and adding gum. The 
yellow color employed in painting porcelain is obtained 
from silver. 

Geographical and Geological Situation of Silver. 
Silver is found, both native and as an ore, in mines and 



QUICKSILVEB. 145 

veins. South America is the country richest in silver 
mines. It is also found in Saxony, Bohemia, Norway, 
Hungary, and England; but the mines of Mexico and 
Peru furnish annually ten times more than all those of 
Europe together. So poisonous are the exhalations from 
the mines of Peru, that many thousands of Indians have 
perished in them, and the cattle that graze on the outside 
are affected by their malignant vapors. This metal is also 
found in several localities in our own country, the most 
important of which are the Washoe region (on the bor- 
ders of California and Nevada Territory), Lake Superior, 
Arizona, North Carolina, and from the gold of California 
and Colorado. 

The ores of silver are very numerous, and various 
methods are employed in different countries to separate 
this metal from its ore. In Mexico and Peru the mineral 
is pounded, roasted, washed, and then mixed with mercury 
in vessels filled with water, a mill being employed for the 
purpose of more perfectly agitating the liquid. This 
causes the silver to unite with the mercury, and then, 
being submitted to heat, the latter is evaporated. The 
pure metal is afterward melted and cast into ingots or bars 
of 80 or 90 lbs. each. 

LESSON XVII. 

QUICKSILVER, OR MERCURY. 

Qualities of QuicJcdlver^ or Mercury. 

It is heavy. 1. It is cold. 3. 

fluid. 2. divisible. 4. 

7 



146 FOURTH STEP. METALS. 

It is volatile when heated. It is dilatable by heat, 
white. medicinal 

brilliant. 5. natural, 

opaque. mineral, 

least tenacious of all bodies. 

1. Weight. Nearly fourteen times heavier than water. 
It is the heaviest known fluid. ^ 

2. Fluid. It always retains its fluidity in our temper- 
ature ; but near the poles it congeals, and then is malle- 
able, ductile, and tenacious. • 

3. Cold. It is the coldest of all fluids, and the hottest 
when boiling. 

4. It is capable of division, by the slightest efibrt, into 
an indefinite number of particles, which are of a spherical 
shape. 

5. The peculiar brilliancy of metals has given rise to 
the term metallic lustre. 

Uses of Quicksilver. 

Quicksilver penetrates and softens other metals, losing 
its own fluidity, and forming a kind of paste called amal- 
gam. This afiinity or attraction that it has for other 
metals makes it exceedingly useful in separating them 
from substances with which they are found combined; 
they are drawn from their ores and nnite Avitli the mer- 
cury, and the latter being volatilized, the pure metal re» 
mains. Quicksilver is easily aflected by the atmosphere, 
and is on this account used in thermometers and barome- 
ters. The Thermometer is an instrument constructed in 
the following manner : A tube of glass, terminating in £?, 



QUICKSILVER. 147 

hollow ball wbicli contains mercury, is plunged into boiling 
"water, wbicli causes tbe mercury to expand and rise to a 
certain beigbt. At tbis jDoint, wbicb is called boiling beat, 
tbe tube is broken off and bermetically sealed ; * tbe freez- 
ing point is tben ascertained and marked, and tbe interven- 
ing space graduated. Tbe tbermometer, by marking tbe 
expansion and contraction of tbe quicksilver, indicates 
tbe increase and decrease of beat and cold in tbe atmos- 
phere. 

To form tbe barometer, a glass tube, open at one end, 
and filled with quicksilver, is plunged with its open end 
downward into a bowl contaming some of tbe same fluid. 
Part of tbe mercury in tbe tube flows into tbe vessel, leav- 
ing a space to which tbe air cannot gain access. A vacuum 
being thus formed, the atmosphere acts upon the mercury 
in tbe bowl ; when heavy, causing it to rise in the tube, 
and when light (the pressure being decreased), allowing it 
to descend. Tbe barometer, by thus showing the weight 
of tbe air, indicates tbe probability of wet or dry weather. 
For when tbe atmosphere is light, it no longer supports 
tbe vapor and clouds which float in it, and they conse- 
quently descend toward tbe earth ; but when tbe air is 
more dense, they are borne up, and we have fine weather. 
The elevation of mountains is also ascertained by means 
of the barometer ; for asit is known that the rarity of the 

* In order to seal anything hermetically, the neck of a glass tube is 
heated till on the point of melting, and then with a pair of hot pincers 
it is closely twisted together, by which means the air is excluded. Her- 
metically is derived from Hermes^ the deity of ancient mythology who 
was thought to preside over the arts and sciences, particularly chemistry. 



148 FOURTH STEP. METALS. 

atmosphere increases in proportion to the ascent, the height 
is easily calculated. 

Quicksilver is also used for coating mirrors. The pro- 
cess is effected in the following manner ; a sheet of tin foil 
the size of the plate of glass is placed evenly on a smooth 
block of stone ; over this is poured some quicksilver, which 
is carefully spread upon it with a feather or rubber of linen. 
Tin, in amalgamating with mercury, quickly forms an oxide 
of a black appearance ; this being removed, more of the 
fluid is poured upon it. The glass is then held horizontal- 
ly, and carefully spread over the amalgam, sweeping before 
it the superfluous mercury, and any more oxide that may 
have formed. Weights are then placed upon the glass, 
and after having remained several days, the mixture ad- 
heres firmly and forms the mirror. 

Vermilion, used in coloring sealing wax, and the medi- 
cine called calomel, are preparations of this metal. 

Geographical and Geological Situation of Quicksilver. 

Quicksilver is found in the native state, as globules, in 
the cavities of mines ; but it is most frequently combined 
with sulphur, forming the mineral called Cinnabar, which 
is of a red color. It is found in considerable quantities in 
some parts of California; the mines yielding 2,000,000 
lbs. avoirdupois annually. 

The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria, are said to 
yield annually 100 tons ; those of Spain still more ; but the 
mines of Peru are the richest. 

The mines of Idria were accidentally discovered about 
three hundred years since. That part of the country was 



LEAD. 149 

then much inhabited by coopers ; one of the men, when re- 
tiring from work in the evening placed a new tub under 
a dropping spring to try if it would hold water, and when 
he came in the morning he found it so heavy that he could 
scarcely move it. On examination he perceived a shining, 
ponderous fluid at the bottom, which proved to be quick- 
silver. When this circumstance was made known, a com- 
pany was formed to discover and work the mines from 
whence the mercury had issued. In some parts of the 
mine it flows in small springs, so that in six hours as much 
as thirty-six pounds have \men collected ; in other parts it 
is found difl'used in small globules. 

lesso:n' XVIII. 

LEAD. 

Qualities of Lead. 

It is heavy. 1. It is solid. 

fusible. 2. sometimes amorphous. 

bright when first sometimes crystallized, 

melted or cut. opaque. 

malleable. mineral. 

ductile. liable to tarnish. 4. 

very soft. 3. ^ inelastic. 

pliable. natural. 

livid, bluish gray. It makes a gray streak on 

easily calcined, that is. paper. 

reduced by heat to a boils and evaporates at 

crumbling substance. great heat. 

1. Heavy. It is eleven times heavier than water ; ra- 
ther heavier than silver. 



150 FOUETH STEP. METALS. 

2. It melts at a much lower temperature than the other 
metals. 

3. It is the softest of all metals. 

4. Lead is not much altered by being exjDosed either to 
air or water, though the brightness of its surface is soon 
lost. Probably a thin stratum of oxide is formed on the 
surface, which defends the rest of the metal from corrosion. 

Uses of Lead. 

The calx * of lead is the basis of many colors, which 
are obtained from it by different degrees of heat. Red 
lead and white lead, so much used in paints, are the calces 
of lead. They are soluble in oil, are very poisonous, and 
occasion the ill health to which painters are subject. The 
oxide of lead also enters into the composition of white 
glass, rendering it clearer ; it is also used in the glazing 
of common earthenware vessels. Any acid tVill extract a 
poison from lead, and therefore the use of it should be 
avoided in culinary operations. It is employed in glazing 
pottery. 

It is also used for gutters and pipes of houses, and for 
cisterns and reservoirs of water, because it does not rust, 
and is very durable. 

The great softness of lead, and the ease with which it is 
fused, are the properties which have brought it so much 

* Calx is the dross formed on the surface of lead when fused. This 
name is applied by chemists to those substances winch have been I'c- 
duced by burning to a friable state. The operation by which this effect 
is produced is called calcination. It is more general now to term 
metallic bodies when calcined, oxides. 



LEAD. 151 

into use. The persons who work it are called plumhers.^ 
The solder they use as a cement is an alloy of lead and tin, 
in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the 
latter. 

Great quantities of lead are consumed in making shot. 
The metal for this purpose is alloyed with arsenic, to ren- 
der it more hard and brittle, and capable of assuming a 
perfectly spherical shape. Shot are formed by dropping 
the melted alloy into water from a considerable height, 
through an iron or copper frame, perforated with round 
holes, w^hich are larger or smaller according to the required 
size of the shot. Mixed with antimony, lead is used for 
printing types ; and with tin and copper, it forms pewter. 

Geological and Geographical Situation of Lead. 

The largest and perhaps most important lead mines in 
the world are found in England and Wales. It is sup- 
posed, from relics and inscriptions found in these mines, 
that they were w^orked by the Romans when in possession 
of Great Britain. 

The principal mines in the United States are found in 
Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa. It has been found 
in several of the Atlantic States, but the mines, proving 
unprofitable, have mostly been abandoned. 

Lead is plentiful in Scotland, Ireland, Spain, France, 
and Germany. 

It is very doubtful whether it is ever found native ; it 
occurs frequently combined with sulphur, when it is called 
galena, 

* Plumb-er, from the Latin plumb-ww, lead. 



152 FOURTH STEP. METALS. 

"When the ore is brought out of the mines it is sorted 
and washed, to free it from dirt and rubbish ; it is then 
spread out, and the best pieces separated. After the ore, 
by picking and washing, has been sufficiently cleansed from 
extraneous matter, it is roasted * in a kind of kiln, to free 
it from the sulphur usually combined with it. The next 
process is to mix it with a quantity of coke, and submit it 
to the smeltijiff fiivnace. In this there are tap holes, which, 
when the lead is melted, are opened, to allow it to run in a 
fluid state into an iron vessel. The dross which floats on 
its surface is skimmed off, and the metal is taken out by 
ladles, and jooured into cast-iron moulds with round ends. 
It is then called 2^i(/ lead, and is fit for use. 

LESSOIST XIX. 

COPPER. 

Qualities of Copper. 

It is heavy. 1. It is mineral. 

tenacious. 2. sometimes crystallized, 

very sonorous. 3. sometimes amorphous, 

fusible. 4. brilliant, 

elastic. 5. reflective, 
capable of extreme divis- sapid. 

ibility. 6. nauseous to the taste. 

* Boasting is the process by which the volatile parts of an ore are 
evaporated. Smeltmg is that by which the pure metal is separated from 
the earthy particles combined with it in the ore. This is done by throw- 
ing the whole into a furnace, and mixing with it substances that will 
combine with the earthy parts ; the metal, being the heaviest, falls to the 
bottom, and runs out by the proper opening in its pure metallic state. 



1 



COPPER. 153 

Qualities of Copper. 
It is malleable. It is hard. 

ductile. unpleasantly odorous, 

compact. solid. 

opaque. medicinal, 

orange-brown color. easily corroded. 

1. Heavy. Copper is eight times heavier than water. 

2. Tenacious. A wire one tenth of an inch in thickness 
will support two hundred and ninety-nine pounds and a 
half without breaking. 

3. It is the most deeply sonorous of all metals. 

4. It is more easily fused than iron, but less so than gold 
or silver. 

5. It is the most elastic metal, next to iron. 

6. A grain dissolved in ammonia will give a perceptible 
color to more than 500,000 times its weight in water. 

The Uses of Copper, 

The uses of copper are numerous and important. 
"When rolled into sheets between iron cylinders, it is used 
to cover the roofs of houses, especially arsenals and manu- 
factories, where there is liability to fire. The bottoms of 
ships are coppered in order to make them sail faster, and 
to prevent shell fish from perforating the w^ood. Copper is 
much used for cooking utensils, but great care is necessary, 
for should any acid or even water be allowed to stand some 
time in the vessels, a poison is extracted ; but while boiling 
this evil does not arise. It is customary, in order to pre- 
vent any danger, to line copper vessels with tin. Copper 
is used in the manufactories of gunpowder, because it does 



154 FOUETII STEP. METALS. 

not, like iron, give out sparks by collision. Having no 
effect upon the magnetic needle, coj)per is found to be the 
best material for the boxes and supports of this delicate 
instrument. Plates of copper are sometimes engraved 
with a sharp instrument called a hurin ^ sometimes they 
are corroded with aquafortis ; * in the latter case, the cop- 
per is covered with wax, on which the design is sketched 
with a pointed instrument, the aquafortis reaches the cop- 
per just in those places where the wax has been removed 
by the sketching, and eats into it. Verdigris is a rust of 
copper, usually made from that metal by corroding it with 
vinegar. There is a large manufactory at Montpelier, in 
France, where verdigris is prepared in the following man- 
ner : Copper plates and the refuse of grapes are placed 
alternately one upon another ; the latter speedily corrode 
the surface of the metal. The verdigris thus formed is 
scraped off as it collects on the copper ; it is afterward 
dried, and packed in casks or bags. It is chiefly employed 
in dying, and is a most virulent poison. The alloys of cop- 
per are numerous and valuable. Brass is the most impor- 
tant ; it is compounded of zinc and copper, in the propor- 
tion of three parts of the former to one of the latter. This 
is a very beautiful and useful substance ; it does not rust so 
easily as copper ; it is more ductile than either that metal 
or iron, and is therefore used in the construction of jjiusical 
and mathematical instruments, and in clockwork. Sieves 
and blinds are woven of brass wire of extreme fineness. 
Brass is used both for purposes of ornament and use,^ 
Copper alloyed with tin forms bronze ; it is remarkable, 

* Aquafortis (strong water) is nitric acid diluted with water. 



COPPEK. 155 

that when these two metals are melted together, the com- 
pound so produced is heavier than the weight of the two 
metals taken separately. Bronze is very useful from its 
being extremely hard, durable, and sonorous ; it is made 
into cannon balls, statues, &c. The metal of which cannon 
are made is also an alloy of copper with tin. Bell metal 
consists of three -pavis copper and one tin. Copper is the 
principal ingredient in German silver and Chinese gongs ; 
and in small proportion it is used to give hardness to silver 
coin and plate. 

Geographical and Geological Situation of Copper. 

Copper is found in Sweden, Saxony, Great Britain, 
America, and Australia. The copper region of Lake Supe- 
rior contains almost the only mines of this metal that are 
profitably worked in the United States. The worn tools 
found in immense numbers in some of these mines, prove 
that they have been worked at^a remote period by an un- 
known people. It was one of the metals earliest known ; 
the Bible mentions w^orkers in brass before the Flood. 

It is found in great variety of forms; sometimes in 
masses of pure metal, but more frequently combined with 
other substances, particularly sulphur. The copper mines 
of Anglesea are very productive ; they are situated on the 
top of a mountain, and form an enormous cavity more than 
500 yards long, 100 broad, and 100 deep. The ore is ob- 
tained from the mine, either by pickaxes or by blasting the 
rock with gunpow^der. It is then broken with a hammer 
into small pieces, an operation which chiefly employs women 
and children. After this, it is piled on a kiln, to the upper 



156 rOUKTH STEP. METALS. 

part of which flues are attached, that communicate with 
sulphur chambers. The kiln is covered, and the fires light- 
ed in dififerent parts, that the ore may undergo the process 
of roasting. The whole mass gradually kindles, and the 
sulphur which is combined with the ore, being expelled in 
fumes by the heat, is conveyed through the flues to the 
sulphur chamber. This process occupies from three to ten 
months, according to the size of the kilns. When the 
operation is complete, or the ore is freed from the sulphur, 
it is submitted to the smelting houses, where, by the in- 
tense heat it undergoes, the pure metal is forced off in a 
fluid state, 

LESSON XX. 

IKON. 

Qualities of Iron. 

It is elastic. 1. It is fusible. 

ductile. 2. livid gray color. 

heavy. 3. solid. 

tenacious. 4, susceptible of a high 

hard. 5. polish. 

malleable. cold. 

liable to rust. sometimes amorphous. 

sonorous. sometimes crystallized. 

mineral. 

1. In the state of steel, it is the most elastic of all 
metals. 

2. Iron is more ductile than gold ; it may be drawn 
into a wire as fine as human hair. 

3. It is the lightest of the common metals, except tin ; 
between seven and eight times heavier than water. 



IKON. 157 

4. The most tenacious of the metals. A wire about 
one tenth of an inch in diameter will support 500 pounds 
without breaking. « 

5. Its hardness exceeds that of most other metals, and 
this is increased by its being converted into steel. 

Uses of Iron, 

Iron is the most useful of all metals, and man very early 
became acquainted with its value. Moses speaks of fur- 
naces of iron, and of the ores from which it was extracted. 
By means of this metal the earth has been cultivated, 
houses and cities built, and without it few arts could be 
practised. Iron is very abundant in nature, but it is always 
found mixed with some other substance. It is then called 
iron ore. Sometimes it is combined with clay, at other 
times with lime, or with flint. In order to separate the 
iron from its ore, intense heat is required ; either pure clay, 
hme, or silex, remain stubborn in the hottest fires, but when 
mixed in proper proportions, the one assists in the fusion 
of the other ; therefore there is always thrown into the fur- 
nace with the iron ore some earth that will combine with 
that in the iron ore. The intense heat of the furnace is 
kept up by means of a continual supply of air, rushing into 
it from immense bellows, worked by machinery. The 
lime, clay, or flint, unite and form a kind of slag, which 
floats on the surface. At the same time the carbon, or 
pure charcoal of the fuel, aided by the limestone, melts 
the iron, which, being heavier than the other substances, 
falls to the bottom of the furnace, and remains there till 
the workmen let it out by a hole made at the bottom of 



158 FOUKTII STEP. METALS. 

the furnace, and plugged with sand. When the workman 
judges that there is a sufficient quantity of the iron fused, 
he displaces the plug with an iron rq^, and the melted iron 
runs out like a stream of liquid fire, and is conveyed into 
furrows made in sand, where it cools ; the pieces formed in 
the principal furrows are called sows, those in the smaller 
furrows branching from them, pigs. In this state it takes 
the name of cast iron^ and from the process it has under- 
gone, it is become extremely hard, and having lost its tena- 
city, it resists the hammer and the file, and is very brittle ; 
it is of a dark gray or blackish color. It is used for the 
backs of chimneys, grates, boilers, pipes, railroads, common 
cannon balls, &c. 

Cast iron contains a large proportion of carbon, and is 
probably saturated with it. It is converted into steel by 
taking away a portion of its carbon. It is converted into 
wrought iron by removing the carbon, and as far as possi- 
ble other impurities, as sulphur, phosphorus, &c. The value 
of wrought iron for machinery, and tools of all descriptions, 
is very great. Steel is also much employed for ornamental 
purposes, on account of the elegant polish it is capable of 
taking. 

Plumbago, or black lead, which is employed in the man- 
ufacture of pencils, is an ore of iron, containing nine j^arts 
of carbon to one of the metal. The bronze color used in 
porcelain painting is an oxide of iron. Meteoric stones, 
which have been the subject of so much conjecture, and 
which are sometimes believed to be ejected from volcanoes 
in the moon, are native iron. 

Iron is very valuable from the magnetic properties it 



IRON. 159 

may acquire. By these it enables the mariner to steer 
across the ocean, the traveller to direct his course with 
safety in the pathless desert, and the miner to guide his 
researches after subterraneous treasures. The loadstone, 
or natural magnet, is an oxide of iron ; it communicates 
its power to bars of iron or steel when placed in contact 
with them. The artificial magnet is now always used, as 
it possesses and retains all the properties of the loadstone. 
The qualities which render it useful, are, its attraction for 
ii'on, and its polarity, or the power by which it points to 
the poles when freely suspended. One end invariably turns 
to the north, and the other to the south, except when it 
approaches the poles ; there the directive power ceases al- 
together, which circumstance constitutes one of the great 
difficulties in nflvigating the Arctic Sea. 

Geographical Situation of Iron. 

Iron is the most universally diffused of the metals. It 
is found in every country, in greater or less quantities. It 
is very rarely met with in a native state, but generally as an 
oxide, or in combination with sulphuric or carbonic acid. 



LESSOK XXI. 

TIN-. 

Qualities of Tin. 

It is heavy. 1. It is very little elastic, 

soft. 2. pUable. 

malleable. 3. easily calcmed. 



160 FOUKTH STEP. METALS. 





Qualities 


of 


Tin. 


It is ductile. 




It 


is natural. 


fusible. 






mineral. 


' white. 






reflective. 


opaque. 






sonorous, makes a 


solid. 






crackling noise. 


brilliant. 






dilatable by heat. 



1. It is seven times heavier than water ; yet the light- 
est of the ductile metals. 

2. It is softer than silver, but harder than lead. 

3. Tin may be beaten into sheets the one thousandth 
part of an inch in thickness. 

Uses of Tin. 

Tin is chiefly employed in the manufacture of culinary 
utensils ; they are not, however, made of solid tin, but of 
what is called tin plate, which is thus prepared : Thin iron 
plates are first well cleansed, by washing them in water and 
sand ; they are then dipped into melted tin, and afterward 
steeped in water acidulated with sulphuric acid. This pro- 
cess causes the tin not only to cover the surface of the iron 
plate, but to penetrate it, so that the whole mass becomes 
of a whitish color. Pins are made of brass wire, tinned. 
When the pin is formed, a vessel is filled with strata 
or layers of tin plates between the brass pins ; the vessel is 
then filled with water and some tartaric acid, by means of 
which the tin is dissolved ; after five or six hours' boiling, 
the pins are found uniformly tinned. It is the zinc of the 
brass which has an affinity for the tin, and forms the union 
which takes place. The pins are afterward polished ; they 



TIN. 161 

are thrown into a tub containing a quantity of bran, which 
is set in motion by the turning of a shaft in the centre ; 
the friction which the pins thus undergo renders them per- 
fectly bright. The uses of tin for domestic purposes are 
very various, particularly when laid over other metals, as 
in stirrups, buckles, &c. The oxide of tin is used in dyeing. 

Tin foil is used for coating Leyden jars, for enclosing 
small packages of tobacco and spices, and for covering the 
tops of champagne bottles, &c., to exclude the air. Large 
sheets are used for silvering looking glasses. 

Tin forms alloys with several other metals. These com- 
pounds have been mentioned before ; as bell metal, pewter, 
bronze. Tin leaves, amalgamated with mercury, are used 
for silvering and plating other metals. 

Geographical Situation of Tin. 

England, Germany, Chili, and Mexico, produce the 
largest quantities of this metal. The tin mines of Cornwall 
were well known to the ancients ; and the Phcenicians are 
said to have traded with the Britons for it long before the 
birth of our Saviour. Native tin is never found, and its 
ore is of less common occurrence than that of iron. It 
occurs as an oxide, or mixed with sulphur and copper; 
chiefly in veins running through granite and other rocks. 
When it is taken from the mine, it is broken into small 
pieces, and streams of water are passed over itj to free it 
from the earthy particles with which it is intermixed ; it is 
then roasted and smelted, when the metal is poured out 
into quadrangular moulds of stone, and receives the 
name of block tin. 



162 FOURTH STEP. — METALS. 

LESSON XXII. 

COMPAKISON OF METALS. 

Gold, a perfect metal, is the most precious. 

most compact, 
heaviest. 

Its weight is between nineteen and twenty times that 
of water. 

Silver, a perfect metal, is next in value to gold, and 
more useful ; its weight between ten and eleven times that 
of water. 

Quicksilver is fluid. 

easily volatilized, 
immalleable. 

Its weight is between thirteen and fourteen times that 
of water. 

Copper is the most sonorous. 

most elastic, except iron. 
Its weight is between eight and nine times that of 
water. 

Iron is the most elastic. 

most tenacious, 
most useful. 
most ductile. 
Its weight is between seven and eight times that of 
water. 

. Lead is the softest. 

most easily fused. 



ON METALS IN GENERAL. 163 

Its weight is between eleven and twelve times that 
of water. 

Tin, next to lead, is the softest of the metals ; it dilates 
most by heat ; it is the lightest, its weight being only seven 
times that of water. 

LESSOj^ XXIII. 

ON METALS IN GENERAL. 

Metals are simple elementary bodies, distinguished by 
being heavier than all other substances ; by possessing a 
peculiar lustre, which is called the nietalllG lustre y by re- 
flecting light and heat ; by their being opaque, fusible, mal- 
leable, tenacious, ductile, and generally elastic. Upon this 
last quality seems to depend their fitness for exciting 
sound, or sonorousness. Metals are capable of uniting 
with each other in a state of fusion ; this union is called an 
alloy. It is remarkable that by these combinations metals 
undergo a considerable change in their properties, and ac- 
quire new ones not belonging to either of them when not 
united. Thus the weight of the alloy, or the two metals 
in combination, is sometimes very different from the weight 
of both the metals taken separately ; an alloy of silver with 
copper or tin, or one of silver or gold with lead, is heavier 
than the same quantities of those metals uncombined. 
Their ductility and malleability are changed and generally 
impaired, the alloy becoming brittle. This is very remark- 
ably the case with gold and lead when united, the latter 
of which, even in the trivial proportion of half a grain to 
an ounce of gold, renders the mass quite destitute of 
tenacity. 



164 FOURTH STEP. — METALS. 

The hardness of metals is varied by combination. Gold 
being united with a small quantity of copper, and silver, 
with a minute proportion of the same metal, acquire such 
an increase of hardness, that these additions are always 
made to gold and silver which are exposed to wear. By a 
small addition of gold, iron is said to gain so much hard- 
ness as to be even superior to steel for the fabrication of 
cutting instruments. 

Change of color is a common effect of the union of 
metals with each other. Arsenic, for example, which re- 
sembles steel, and copper, which has a red color, afford by 
their union a compound Avhich has nearly the whiteness of 
silver. 

In order to ascertain how far the children have retained 
the knowledge acquired in these lessons, the following ques- 
tions may be given to them to answer in writing : 

QUESTIONS ON THE METALS. 

GOLD. 

1. What are the chief qualities of gold? 

2. "What is its weight ? 

3. Give a proof of its ductility. 

4. tenacity. 

6. malleability. 

6. Upon what other quality does its malleability de- 
pend ? 

7. What qualities are directly opposed to malleability ? 

8. What is an alloy ? 

, 9. Why is gold alloyed for the purpose of coinage? 



SILVJEB. 165 

10. What metal is used as its alloy ? and in what pro- 
portion ? 

11. How are buttons gilded? 

12. Describe the manner of forming leaf gold, 

13. In what state is gold found ? 

14. What is an ore ? 

15. What is meant by a native metal? 

16. In what countries is gold found? 

17. What people employ themselves in separating it 
from the sands of the European rivers ? 

SILVER. 

1. What are the chief proportions of silver? 

2. What is its weight ? 

3. What degree of tenacity does it possess ? 

4. What are the chief uses of silver ? 

5. Upon what qualities do the uses of silver depend? 

6. Describe' the operation of plating. 

7. What is lunar caustic ? and what are its uses ? 

8. Give the geographical location of silver. 

9. Why are gold and silver called perfect metals ? 

QUICKSILVER. 

1. What are the uses and properties of quicksilver ? 

2. What is its weight ? 

3. In what respect is it remarkable as a liquid ? 

4. What effect does heat produce upon it ? 

6. Under what circumstances does a change in its qual- 
ities take place ? and what is the change ? 
6. What is an amalgam? 



166 FOURTH STEP.- — METALS. 

7. Mention the uses of quicksilver. 

8. What are the properties that fit it for a barometer ? 

9. What for a thermometer ? 

10. How is a barometer made ? and what is its use ? 

11. How is a thermometer made ? and what is its use ? 

12. What color is obtained from quicksilver ? 

13. Where is quicksilver found ? 

14. What circumstance led to the discovery of the mines 
of Idria ? 

LEAD. 

1. What are the remarkable qualities of lead? 

2. What is its weight? 

3. What are the diflerent effects which heat produces 
on lead ? 

4. What are the chief uses of lead ? 

5. Why is it used for reservoirs of water ? 

6. How are shot made ? 

7. What is the use of the oxides of lead ? 

8. What are its alloys ? 

9. In what state is lead found ? 

10. What is- lead called when found united with sulphur? 

11. Where is lead most abundant ? 

12. Describe the process of roasting and smelting. 

COPPEE. 

1. What are the chief qualities of coj^per ? 

2. What is its weight and what its degree of tenacity ? 

3. How is it proved to be capable of extreme divisi- 
bility? 

4. What are the uses of copper ? 



IRON. 167 

5. What is verdigris ? and how is it made ? 

6. What is the danger incurred by employing copper 
in kitchen utensils ? 

7. What are the alloys of coi^per ? 

8. In what respect is brass preferable to copper ? 

9. Where is copper found ? and in what state ? 

10. Describe the copper mines in Anglesea, and the 
manner of extracting the metal from the ore. 

IKON. 

1. What are the chief qualities of iron? 

2. What quahty does it possess in a higher degree 
than any other metal ? 

3. What is its weight and tenacity ? 

4. What are the different states in which iron is used ? 

5. How is cast iron prepared ? 

6. What are its qualities and uses ? 

7. How is wrought iron prepared ? 

8. What are its qualities and uses ? 

9. How is steel prepared ? 

10. What are its qualities and uses? 

11. What is meant by the temper of steel ? 

12. What is plumbago? and what quality makes it 
useful ? 

13. What is the geographical situation of iron? and 
with what is it found combined ? 

TIN. 

1. What are the qualities of tin ? 

2. What are the uses of tin ? 



168 FOURTH STEP. NATURAI. HISTORY. 

3. How is it prepared for use ? 

4. How are pins tinned ? 

5. What is block tin ? 

6. Where is tin found ? 

LESSON XXIV. 

A BEE. 

For Children from ten to twelve years old. 

DESCEIPTION OF A BEE. 

I. Examination of the Bee. — ^The children should be 
directed to examine a bee very minutely, and the following 
description, as far as it can, should be drawn from them ; 
and what they cannot observe, they should be told. 

The bee possesses a horny covering, which is harder 
than the internal parts, thus serving as an external skele- 
ton. The body is divided into three distinct parts — head, 
thorax, and body. The jaws are four in number — two up- 
per ones, and two under ones ; the under ones are length- 
ened, and form, as it were, a sheath to the tongue. The 
tongue is very long and slender, and admirably adapted 
for clearing the honey out of the dee2) nectaries of flowers, 
and also for curling up inside the mouth. Their attention 
should then be directed to the fact, that there is a mem- 
branous bag folded under the tongue. They, should be 
told that this bag is capable of being greatly distended, 
and is used for receiving the honey before it is swallowed 
and consigned to the honey bag. The bee has four wings — r 
two upper ones and two under — the latter are much more 
delicate than the former. It has six legs ; on the broad 



A BEE. 169 

surfaces of the hind legs are two small cavities, which have 
a covering or lid of hairs. The children should be told 
that these are used for containing the bee bread, with 
which it feeds the young, and which it obtains and pre- 
pares at the same time it is gathering honey, and that when 
the honey also is safely deposited in its appropriate place, 
the bee, quite loaded, flies home. The children's attention 
should then be directed to the eye ; but before speaking 
of it they should be shown a piece of glass, of the shape of 
a double convex lens, be told its name, and that in the front 
part of our eye there is a very small capsule, or bag, filled 
with a transparent fluid, which is of the same shape — that 
in passing through this the rays of light meet in a point, 
or focus, which causes the reflections to be clear and dis- 
tinct. When the children thoroughly understand this, 
they should be told that the eye of the bee is always im- 
movably fixed, which they might consider a great defect, 
but that full compensation is made in the numerous lenses 
with which it is filled, each, they will see, acting as a single 
eye, consequently the bee would not require to move its 
eye. The children should then be told that the bee was 
not always in the same form in w^hich they see it, but that 
it had undergone three changes ; that on its first appear- 
ance from the egg it was soniething like an earth worm, 
and was called the larva ; in the second change it is called 
a chrysalis, wdien it is quite torj)id ; and in the third it is 
the perfect insect or bee. 

From knowledge previously acquired, the children will 
be able by this examination of the bee to state that it is a 
true iiisect, and also to give the three proofs ; 1st. It con- 



170 FOUKTH STEP. NATUEiVL HISTORY. 

sists of hbad, thorax, and body, while some insects (im^ 
properly so called), such as the spider and scorpion, consist 
only of head and body, the thorax being united with the 
head. 2d. It has six legs — whereas the so-called insects 
have never less than eight — such are the spider and scor- 
pion. 3d. The spider and scorpion, and all the so-called 
insects, never undergo tlie changes for which the bee and 
all true insects are remarkable. 

After having thus dwelt upon the particular group to 
which the bee belongs, the children should be desired to 
name the great class in which it is included, and also to 
give the reasons why so placed ; viz., the bee belongs to 
the class " Articulata," ibecause, 1st. It possesses what may 
be considered an external skeleton in its horny covering ; 
2d. Its body is divided into sGveral segments, or parts, 
which are joined or articulated together. 

11. Habits of the Bee. — They are social insects, each 
individual working for the good of all ; they are remark- 
able for their great industry and carefulness, and for the 
instinct they possess, as seen in the construction of their 
habitations — a subject which should be taken up in a 
separate lesson. 

LESSON" XXV. 

HONEY COMB. 

For Children from eight to ticelve years old. 

CONSTRUCTION OF COMBS, ETC. 

I. Examination of the ^Comh. — Several pieces of honey 
comb should be presented to the children. On examining 



HONEY COMB. l7l 

the combs the children will discover that they are chiefly 
made of wax, but not exclusively, being smeared over with 
a gummy substance. They should be told that this is called 
" propolis," and is obtained from the bark and buds of some 
trees, and serves to strengthen the combs. 

II. Examiyiatlon of Cells. — Classes of Bees. — The cells 
should then be examined as to their size; the children 
will soon see that there are three varieties in their size. 
They should then be told that there are three distinctions 
among the bees : — 1st. There is the queen bee^ who is the 
most important personage, and the mother of all; who, 
with the royal larvee, occupies the largest cells, termed 
"royal chambers." 2d. The male bees, who are a little 
smaller in size ; the next sized cells contain larvae that will 
produce these. 3d. There are the workers, or the female 
bees, which are the smallest kind ; eggs that will produce 
these are deposited in the smallest cells. 

III. Uses of Cells. — The children should then be led 
by questioning to tell the three uses of cells. By refer- 
ring to what had just been dwelt upon, they see that the 
first use was, to contain eggs. By asking what was done 
with all the honey that was gathered, they will give the 
use, to serve as storehouses for honey. By questioning 
them as to what else the bee gathers from flowers, besides 
honey, and what was done with it, they will see that the 
cells also serve as receptacles for bee bread. 

IV. Description of the Construction of Combs and 
Cells. — ^After all this is quite clear to the children, the man- 
ner in which the combs and cells are constructed should be 
described to them, stopping at intervals In order to ques- 



1*72 FOURTH STEP. NATURAL HISTORY. 

tion them, that all may follow ; thus, The wax makes its 
api^earance in the form of eight scales upon the bee pre- 
vious to the making of a comb. A bee ascends to the top 
of the hive, and attaches itself by the hind legs to the roof; 
another follows, and by its hind legs fastens itself to the 
first bee ; a third follows the second, and so on, till a long 
string is formed, the last bee of which also fastens itself 
to the roof, so that a kind of festoon is produced ; this 
festoon is filled up by many more bees : several such fes- 
toons are made in each hive. In this state the bees remain 
quite still, until the scales appear. A bee then separates 
itself from the rest, and by its hind legs removes one of 
the scales, which is carried to the mouth by the fore legs, 
where it is masticated and mixed with a frothy liquid, by 
which it becomes whiter and firmer ; it is then attached to 
the roof of the hive : the remaininsr scales are treated in 
precisely the same manner; and then the bee retires, 
making way for another bee. Thus they continue to work 
until the whole block is formed. Before proceeding to 
the construction of the cells, the children should be well 
questioned on the preceding ; as. How does the wax ap- 
pear ? — In what way do the bees arrange themselves be- 
fore commencing the combs ? — How is the festoon com- 
menced ? — What is the next movement of the bees ? — 
What process does the wax undergo before being attached 
to the hive, and what are the benefits ? &c., &g. 

The manner of constructing the cells should then be 
described, as follows : — ^As soon as sufficient of the comb 
has been made to admit of the work of excavation, a bee 
commences making a cell ; and as the comb increases in 



COVEKIJ^G OF BIKDS. 173 

size, the number of cells multiplies rapidly, more bees being 
able to join in the work. 

V. Lessons of Instruction. — The children should next 
be assisted to draw lessons of instruction from what has 
been noticed respecting the bee. 

First, They afford ug a striking example of industry 
and carefulness — They do not lose one hour of the sum- 
mer's sunshine, but are always busy gathering honey, and 
storing it up for the winter's use, when they cannot leave 
their hives — From this we should learn never to idle away 
our time in youth, but embrace every opjDortunity of lay- 
ing by stores of instruction, for our comfort in old age, 
when we are not capable of so doing. 

Secondly, The examination of this wonderful little in- 
sect should also enlarge our ideas respecting the infinite 
wisdom and goodness of God, who giveth one of his 
smallest creatures such powers as are not only necessary 
to its own well-being, but can also contribute to the com- 
fort of man ; showing that the very smallest, as well as the 
largest of God's works, demands our highest admiration. 

LESSOI^T XXYI. 

SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE COVERING OF BIRDS, AND ITS 
ADAPTATION TO THEIR WANTS. 

For Children under twelve years of age. 

In order that the children should determine what is 
necessary in the covering of birds, refer to their habits^ 
motion, and the element in which they move ; and from a 



IH FOUETH STEP. — ^LESSON XXVI. 

consideration of these, lead them to deduce the necessity 
for great warmth ; by comparison of the blood of birds 
with that of other animals, speak of the rapid changes of 
temperatm'c to which they are exposed in passing from one 
country to another — in ascending and descending in the 
atmosphere. (Instance Vultures.) The vulture descends 
from the hmit of perpetual snov/ to tropical plains in a few 
moments. Also, call attention to their long and sustained 
fliglrt — the energy they possess in consequence of their 
quick circulation, which is the cause of the w^armth of their 
bodies — and how their covering prevents it from escaping. 

Great strength combined with lightness. 

The children led to see why the feathers should be 
strong, by reference to the organs of flight. Why light 
and also smooth, by reference to the element through 
which the bird moves. 

II. JExamination of the structure of a feather. — Chil- 
dren name and describe the parts of a feather : — the quill 
or barrel — the shaft — vane, or beard — the qualities of the 
quill mentioned : 

Lightness. — Result of form — a hollow cylinder much 
stronger than if the same quantity were m.ade into a solid 
cylinder. Should be illustrated to the children by compar- 
ing the weight borne by a hollow cylinder made of a piece 
of paper, with the weight borne by the same piece of paper 
made into a solid cylinder. 

Strength. — Composed of two sets of fibres, one acting 
longitudinally, the other circularly — effect of this — ^^cut a 
quill as w^ien a pen is made, and show the children that the 
latter set are scraped off, the former separated by the slit. 



COVEEING OF BIEDS. • 175 

The shaft examined and described. Lead the children 
to see how the form ada^Dts it to the shape of the body — 
speak of the manner of flight, and show the necessity of 
the groove and curve beneath, in striking the air ; and of 
the great strength above, necessary to resist the stroke. 

Vane^ or heard. — Examined — of what composed — shape 
of the barbs, and their position with respect to the shaft — 
their an-angement with respect to each other — why the flat 
sides are turned toward each other, and edges upward and 
downward — a large unruffled quill presented, and the chil- 
dren shown that the barbs are firmly held together — when 
pulled asunder, they again unite on being smoothed — how 
is this ? Mention with what each barb is provided — posi- 
tion, ofiice, and use of barblets — call attention of children 
to the beauty of this complicated arrangement, by suppos- 
ing the beard formed of a single piece, or the barbs glued 
together — the consequence in either case? — an injury once 
sustained could never be repaired by the bird — how the 
bird restores any feathers unfitted for flight through the 
violence of a storm, by contact with prey, or other 
accident. 

(What has been said here refers chiefly to the feathers 
of the wing and tail.) 

Children led to see how admirably the structure and 
arrangement of the body feathers are adapted to secure the 
warmth required for the bird. 

The feathers of the body compared with those of the 
wings, and the class led to observe how each part of the 
former is modified to suit a" diflerent purpose. Refer to 
the swan, to show the provisions made when great warmth 



1V6 FOUKTU STEP. ^LESSON XXVII. 

is required. Direct attention to what are called warm sub- 
stances — they are non-conductors, and prevent the escape 
of heat — how feathers efiectually accomplish this for the 
bird. 

Arrangement of feathers in wings and tail — wind can 
scarcely ruffle them. 

Refer to the goodness and wisdom of God in the beau- 
tiful adaptation of structure to wants, and call for a suita- 
ble text. 

LESSOX XXVII. 

SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE ADAPTATION OF FEATHEES TO 
THE HABITS AND WANTS OF BIEDS. 

For Children under ticelve years of Age. 

I. The Owl. — Habits and food. — Call the children's 
attention to the habits and food of the owl. 

1. Habits. — Nocturnal, passing the day in obscurity, 
but on approach of evening coming forth in search of prey. 

2. Food. — Mice, and other small animals, which are 
naturally very timid, and likely to be disturbed by the 
least noise, therefore only to be approached with great 
caution. 

3. Ada2^tatioo% of plumage. — ^Refer to the noise usually 
made by birds in flying — how prevented in case of the 
owl ? Plumage of owl examined, and the children led to 
see that the feathers are soft, loose, downy, yielding to 
every breath of air. 

"Wings provided with quill feathers, deficient in strength 
and elasticity. Children led to deduce the necessity for 



HABITS AND WANTS OF BIRDS. 177 

this, by reference to the nature of the animals on which 
they prey. 

Extent of wings compared with the body. Children 
led to see the provision made to prevent tardiness of 

flicrht. 

o 

The edge of the outer feather of the owl compared 
with that of a pigeon, or any other bird, for the purpose 
of showing how admirably they are modified to secure 
noiseless flight. 

II. The Kingfisher. — Direct attention to its locality 
and food. 

1. Locality. — Inhabits the margins of lakes and rivers. 

2. Food. — Preys on small fish. The manner of obtain- 
ing food described, and the children led to see the kind of 
plumage necessary to resist the action of water during its 
sudden plunges. 

3. The kingfisher's 'plumage examined — adaptation of 
bright hues and metallic lustre shown. 

4. Hahits of owl compared with those of kingfisher, to 
show the necessity of a different kind of covering. What 
would be the consequence had the kingfisher feathers like 
the owl? 

III. The Duck. — Children called upon to say all they 
know of the habits and food, where seen, &c. 

Refer to the habits and food of duck — to the chillinsr 
and softening effects of water — and then lead the children 
to see the necessity for such covering as will resist these 
effects. Compare the different effects of rain on the 
feathers of a duck, and on those of a hen. 

The reason of this difference may be illustrated by ref- 

8* 



178 FOURTH STEP. — ^LESSON XXVIII. 

erence to the various ways in which oil is used where 
resistance to the influence of water is desired. Examine 
the plumage of a duck : use of thick, downy under-coat — 
to prevent the escape of heat from the body ; smooth, pol- 
ished outer feathers — to keep out wet. 

Habits of duck and kingfisher contrasted, to show the 
necessity of difierent modification of feathers. 

IV. The Ostrich. — Refer to the country where it is 
found — its food and habits — show that flight is not neces- 
sary — refer to the heat of the country inhabited by the os- 
trich — the kind of protection needed; and lead the children 
to see how the plumage is fitted to afibrd this. 

LESSON XXVIII. 

SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE BEAKS OF BIRDS. 

For Children from eight to ten years of age. 
I. Commence . by questioning the children as to the 
organ by which birds obtain their food ; how it differs from 
our mouth, and how it is a substitute for teeth ; and draw 
from them all they may have observed as to the habits of 
birds, supj^lying information where necessary, and leading 
them to see that some birds, as the swallow, sj^cnd their 
time chiefly on the wing, darting with short and rapid 
flights in every direction ; and some, as the dnck, sj^end 
the greater part of their time in swimming ; others, as the 
heron, are seen standing generally in the soft mud in the 
neighborhood of pools and lakes ; some, as the hen, may 
be seen constantly scratching up the ground ; and others 
again, as the owl, stealthily flitting about at night. 



ON THE BEAKS OF BIRDS. 179 

Question as to how all these are employed, and lead 
them to see that the difference of habits arises from the 
different kinds of food that they require, and the different 
elements in which they seek for it. 

II. Present the beaks of the several birds above men- 
tioned-— Children examine them, and trace their adaptation 
to the wants of the bird. 

1st. That of the Swallow. — Thin — soft — very wide at 
the base, and coming quickly to a point. Why soft ? — In- 
ferred from the nature of its food, insects captured while 
on the wing. The necessity for the great width of the beak 
in proportion to the size of the bird, may also be inferred 
from the difficulty of securing these insects in the air. 

2d. The Ditch'' s. — Broad, flat, and spoon-shaped, having 
a fringe at the edge of each mandible. Use of the fringe — 
Serves as a strainer. The . reason of this shaped beak will 
be seen by reference to its food — small fish and insects. 
To the manner of obtaining them — dipping its head under 
water and straining the mud through the serrated edges 
of its beak, and retaining what is necessary. 

3d. The Snipe'' s. — Long and slender, serrated like the 
duck's. By reference to the food and habits, lead the 
children to see how this long and slender beak is fitted for 
entering the soft mud, and how admirably the serrated 
edge is suited for retaining the insects contained in the 
mud. 

4th. The Hen'^s. — Hard, strong, straight and blunt. By 
considering the habits of the hen, lead the children to see 
the necessity for hardness and strength, from the frequency 
with which it comes in contact with clay, stones, and other 



180 FOUKTH STEP. LESSON XXIX. 

hard substances, also the hardness of the food; — the Mrd 
could not well pick up any grains without a hard instru- 
ment. Refer to the force with which it pecks, and show 
the necessity for bluntness — If sharp, would soon be worn 
away, and enter the ground by the force of the blow. 

5th. The OioVs. — Sharp, strong, and curved. The ne- 
cessity for these qualities again inferred from the nature 
of its food, — birds and other small animals ; it requires the 
sharpness and strength it possesses to destroy its prey and 
tear it asunder. 

Before concluding the lesson, require the children to 
state how the beak of each bird mentioned is. suited to its 
food, and then draw from them the conclusion, that the 
beaks of all birds are suited to their habits and wants, 
showing the goodness of God in thus providing them with 
what is best for them. 

lesso:n^ XXIX. 

SKETCHES OF A LESSON ON THE MOLE. — TO BE GIVEN TO 
CHILDREN OF TEN YEARS OF AGE. 

'No. I. — Intended simply for the Teacher's own use. 

I. Aiiimcd described. — ^The body in form cylindrical — 
Compact, and strong in the fore part. The siiout elon- 
gated, terminating in bone rather than gristle. The eyes 
small, and s-unk in the fur. I^o external ears^ but a simj^le 
opening cencealed under the covering. The sM?i tough, 
and covered by an extremely close, fine, short fur — ^having 
no determined direction, but, like the nap of velvet, pre- 
senting a smooth surface, incapable of being ruffled. The 



ON THE MOLE. 181 

limbs short — The fro7it pair thick, strong, and muscular, 
ending in broad hands^ spade-like in shape, obliquely in- 
cHned so as to make the inner edges the lowest part — The 
extremities of these organs, five fingers, scarcely distinct, 
but furnished with hard, flat nails — The huid limbs small, 
and the feet comparatively feeble. 

II. Habits described. — The mole subsists chiefly on 
worms, and the larvae of insects found in the greatest 
abundance under the surface of the earth, w^here the mole 
has its habitation beneath those miniature hills so frequently 
found in rich meadows, and cultivated fields. Its nest is 
of a conical form, carefully lined with vegetable fibre, and 
makes a most comfortable nursery for its young, which are 
reared with extreme care and tenderness. Leading to the • 
nest are always several subterraneous galleries, furnishing 
roads of egress and ingress. 

III. Adaptation of the Organization of the Animal 
to its Habits. — Structure, and habits of the mole carefully 
recapitulated. 

From the peculiar construction of the front limbs, infer 
that they are essentially necessary in administering to the 
wants of the animal. Means the little creature has of ex- 
cavating the passages in which its food is to be found. 
Has no other, and oieeds no other than those spade-like 
instruments the nails, the extremities of which loosen the 
soil, and render it capable of being collected in the hands ; 
from whence it is thrown to the sides, and a little behind 
the animal. The nails, aided by the pointed long snout, 
admirably adapted for working its way in the earth, and 
detecting worms, grubs, &c. — directed to these by the 



182 FOUKTH STEP. — LESSON XXX 

acute senses of smelling and hearing. Little power of 
vision required ; little given. God makes nothing which 
has not some distinct end to answer. The goodness of the 
Creator manifest in withholding an external ear and a fully 
developed eye ; — if given, sources not of pleasure but of 
pain, on account of their liability to injury from the mould 
in which the animal is constantly employed. 

Covering exactly suited to an animal destined to lead 
a subterraneous life. Thick, short, and incapable of being 
displaced, it does not impede the animal in its progress — 
Does not retain the wet and mud. Weil might the Psalm- 
ist exclaim, " O Lord, how manifold are Thy works, in 
wisdom hast Thou made them all. 

LESSOI^ XXX. 

N'o. U. — The Method of gimng the Lesson on the 3Iole 
is here Detailed at length, to shoio not only lohat is 
Taught, hut how it is Taught. 

• L Structure described. — A specimen of the mole being 
presented to the children, get them carefully to observe 
and describe \is principal organs, directing their attention 
by means of questions, comparisons, &c. 

Ask if they know any form which the body nearly re- 
sembles? — What things havingthe form of a cylinder are 
said to be ? — What then may be said of the body of the 
mole ? — " The body of the mole is cylindrical " — This 
should be simultaneously, repeated and written by the 
teacher on the black board. 

Next, let the children compare i\iQfur of the mole with 



» ON THE MOLE. 183 

that of some animal in which the hairs are scattered and 
stiff. Call npon them to state the difference, and if unac- 
quainted with the term that expresses the quality of the 
mole's covering, tell them that, " w^hen things are made 
to lie closely together, and so as to occupy a smaller space 
than they otherwise would, they are said to be compact, 
or compactly arranged " — ^Let this be repeated more than 
once if necessary. 

Inquire whether they know any manufactured article 
used in dress to which the covering of the mole bears a 
resemblance. The obvious qualities of the fur, such as 
short, thick, fine, will be quickly seen ; but probably not 
one child will discover that, like the nap of velvet, it has 
no fixed direction, and is incapable of being ruffled, until 
told to stroke the animal from the head to the tail, and 
from the tail to the head, and a cat in the same way — Then 
to state what they observe. The children should describe 
the fur, and the teacher add to the account on the board, 
" and covered by a fine, short, compact fur, which has no 
particular direction, and cannot be ruffled." 

Next ask. What animal has a head something like the 
mole? — When they had a lesson on the pig, v>^hat did 
they say of its snout ? — How it terminated ? — Let them 
feel the extremity of that organ in the mole, and then de- 
scribe the head. " The head of the mole is small, tapering 
into an elongated snout, which ends in bone rather than 
gristle." — This should be repeated simultaneously, and writ- 
ten on the board. 

Other parts of the head named and described by the 
children — The eyes very small, and sunk in the fur. Should 



184 FOURTH STEP. LESSON XXX. , 

the children assert that the mole has no ears, tell them 
that it has no external ears that can be seen, but that it 
possesses the sense of hearing to a considerable degree. 
Question — With what do they hear ? — Touch their ears — 
Do they think they would hear were that flap removed ? — 
Not so well, certainly, but they would be far from deaf; 
for they have an internal ear, and the mole has this also ; 
the entrance to which they may discover if they look care- 
fully. Add to the notes on the board, "The eyes are small, 
nearly hidden by the fur; there is no outer ear, but a 
simj^le opening, concealed under the covering." 

Inquire if there is anything remarkable about the limbs ? 
They are very short ; the fro?it 2^ctir are strong and mus- 
cular, terminating in broad hands. Do the hands remind 
them of any tool used by gardeners, ditchers, &c. ? Yes, 
they are spade-like ; when they compare the fingers of the 
mole with their own, what difference do they observe ? 
what have they at the ends of their fingers ? what has 
the mole ? Desire them to describe the front limbs, and 
say what shall be written on the board. " The front limbs 
of the mole are strong, muscular, and terminate in large, 
broad, spade-like hands, ending in five fingers, scarcely 
divided, and furnished with hard, flat nails." By causing 
the children to compare the position of the hands of the 
mole with that of their own, lead them to observe the 
oblique, downward, and outward direction of the former. 
Desire them to feel that portion of the body to which the 
limbs are attached, and contrast it with the fore parts of 
a rabbit, that they may perceive not only that the arms are 
strong, but that that part of the frame which supports them 



OiS^ THE MOLE. 185 

is SO also. Question as to the difference observable between 
the front and hind limbs. The latter are small and slender, 
lying close to the body, the feet are furnished with claws, 
yet are feeble compared to the spade-like hands. 

II. Habits described. — Inform the children that the 
mole cannot endure more than six hours' fast without great 
exhaustion. That it subsists on worms and the urubs of 
insects, found in the greatest abundance under the surface 
of the earth. 

If the pupils are not acquainted with the interior of 
mole hills, represent to them on the board the galleries 
and miniature hills made by the excavations of the little 
miner. Speak of the lining of the nests of birds. Tell them 
that the nest of the mole is lined with vegetable fibre, and 
made a most comfortable nursery for its young, v/hich are 
reared with extreme care and tenderness. That leading 
to the dormitory of the mole there are always several sub- 
terranean passages, dug out by the creature as means of 
going in and coming out. That he is an expert swimmer ; 
appears to enjoy the water; and requires to drink fre- 
quently ; and that there is usually a colony of these Httle 
miners in possession of one common passage to the nearest 
stream or ditch. 

III. Adaptation of the organs to the habits atid locality 
show7i. — Let the chilclren, with the assistance of the notes 
on the board, and the occasional use of the ellipsis, recapit- 
ulate the description of the organization and habits of the 
mole. Ask them to what the first part of the lesson re- 
lated, and to what the second. Question them as to what 
connection there is between the organs, and the habits and 



186 FOUKTII STEP. LESSON XXX. 

locality of animals. Require examples of animals having 
their organs exactly adapted to their mode of life. Ques- 
tion : What organ fits the monkey for its life amid trees ? 
What part of the bat is adapted for flight ? What ena- 
bles the hedgehog to burrow in the earth ? What organ 
do they observe varies most to meet the v/ants of animals ? 
Draw from them the general rule, that " God, who formed 
animals, not only fixed the bounds of their habitation, and 
gave them their peculiar propensities, but also caused that 
the one should be fitted to the other." This is to be re- 
peated. Question : Did they observe anything peculiar in 
the construction of the limbs of the molq ? What then do 
they expect to find ? That they are essentially necessary 
in administering to its wants. Where is its food found ? 
What means has it of getting at worms below the surface 
of the earth ? Have they ever seen men making sewers ? 
What implements had they? The mole has similar work 
to do. What has it corresponding to a spade or shovel ? 
Desire the children to imitate with their own hands the 
position of the hands of the mole, and say if they were to 
throw anything from them, holding their hands in this po- 
sition, in what direction with respect to their bodies it 
would go ? What would be the consequence if the mole 
could only use its feet in throwing soil hehind it ? Are th6 
feet of animals ever used in any other operation ? Think 
of the monkey, the cat, the parrot. But the mole does 
not convey its food to its mouth by means of its hands. 
What other organ could it use ? What senses in the mole 
would they expect to find very acute ? Does it need much 
light in its underground work ? What sense would not as- 



ON THE MOLE. 187 

sist it in discovering its prey ? What have they observed 
when animals have not required a sense or organ ? Re- 
mark : They see that God makes nothing that has not 
some distinct end to answer, some work to perform. 
Question: Do they see any reason why an external ear 
was not given to the mole ? If it had one, what must 
happen ? What must be the result of the dirt and dust 
entering into the ears and eyes ? Hence if bestowed they 
would be sources not of pleasure but of pain. What shall 
we say of the Creator of this little miner ? He is indeed 
kind as well as wise. "His tender mercies are over all His 
works." Question : If they were to thrust a hand into 
some newly dug earth, how would it feel ? What kind of 
covering then would be the best for one living under 
ground ? How is the fur of the mole adapted to keep in 
the heat of the body ? What other advantage arises from 
its fineness and thickness ? In what direction does a cat 
like to be stroked ? What would be done by pressing the 
hand the reverse way ? When told that sometimes moles 
pass each other in their very narrow galleries, or in their 
passage to a reservoir of water, and that not unfrequently 
a single mole can only just move with ease along a newly- 
excavated road, the children will readily see the suitability 
of a covering incapable of being ruffled, and of a body 
compact and cylindrical. What do they observe in all its 
organ.3 ? What said David respecting God's works ? Let 
us also say, " Lord, how manifold are thy works ; in wis- 
dom has.t Thou made them all." 

The lesson to be recapitulated, and condensed into a 
simple summary containing the principal ideas. To be 



188 FOUKTll STEP. I.KSSON XXXI. 

written at home from memoiy, and brought the following 
morning.* 

LESSON XXXI. 

Two Sketches of Lessons on Fur. 

SKETCH I. 

I. WJiat it is, and hoio fitted for the clothing of ani- 
mals. — Pictures, or stuffed si^ecimens, such as can be pro- 
cured, brought before the children, that they may be led 
to determine what fur is, and observe its great variety and 
beauty, owing to the difference in the color, length, and 
thickness of the hairs. Use to the animal. State to the 
children the changes which it undergoes at different sea- 
sons of the year ; in winter becoming thick, close, and abim- 
dant, and in some the color changing to white ; in summer 
partly shed, and much more loose and open. The reason 
for these changes — the modifications observable in the fur 
of animals inhabiting different climates — the adaptation to 
the reipirements of the animals, manifesting the wisdom 
and goodness of God. 

II. Qualities. — Soft — formed of hairs, therefore said 
to be hairy — the difference between the skin and the fur — 
the one soft and flexible, the other stiff and somewhat 
harsh — in what way it is fitted for the wants of the animals 
of which it forms the covering — why we say it is warm ? 
Lead them to observe that it is neither hot nor cold to the 

* It is the design of this lesson that either the mole itself, or a stuffed 
specimen, should be presented to the class. If a picture is used, the form 
of the lesson must be changed somewhat to correspond. 



FUR. 189 

toucb, but that as it does not allow the warmth of tho 
body to pass away, we say it is warm^ and so of other 
objects. 

III. Uses to man. — Made into muffs, capes, cloaks, caps, 
&c. The qualities which fit it for such uses — warmth, soft- 
ness, and flexibility. 

SKETCH II. 

I. Far producing countries. — ^These pointed out on the 
map, as Hudson Bay Company's territory ; Russian Amer- 
ica ; Siberia, the most important — the wild, dreary, and 
desolate character of these countries — the animals inhabit- 
ing them alone rendering them of any commercial import- 
ance — refer especially to the Hudson Bay Company's terri- 
tory ; the extent and character of their possessions ; the 
time and manner of establishment ; the factories and their 
situations. (All this described to the children.) 

II. Hunting season and hunters. — Hunting season — - 
why at a particular time ? Question here as to the changes 
necessary in clotning on the approach of winter ; and lead 
the children to see, that as this is the season when animals 
require most warmth, so it is the season when fur is the 
thickest; kence the time when it is most valuable, and 
hence also the hunting season. Speak of hunters, and the 
preparation for .hunting — qualities of a good hunter — cau- 
tious in disturbing, dexterous, and fertile in invention, bold 
and courageous in attacking and securing — why are these 
qualities essential to a good hunter ? 

III. Contrast Furs of Arctic and Tropical Regions, — 
Contrast the fur of animals found in northern latitudes with 



190 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXXI. 

those met with in the tropics and warmer regions : in the 
first it is rich, fine, close, silky, and warm ; in the second, 
although beautiful in appearance, yet thin and scattered, 
neither adapted for warmth, comfort, nor general use — 
contrast northern and tropical climates, to lead the children 
to see the necessity for this difference of covering — show 
that the difference in fur of northern and tropical climates, 
arises from the same cause as that which marks a difference 
in the fur of the same animals at different seasons — a beau- 
tiful evidence of design in the seal — inhabiting the arctic 
regions, great warmth necessary — under the skin of the 
common seal a thick layer of fat ; in the fur seal no such 
layer found, but the animal is covered with a rich, curly, 
silky down, among which is scattered long coarse hair — 
the uses' to which this fur is applied — the preparation it un- 
dergoes, and beauty of its -appearance. 

lY. Uses to nian^ and qualities lohich render it useful. 
Enumeration of uses to which fur is applied, and the chil- 
dren led to observe the qualities which render it so exten- 
sively useful. (The children are supposed to have been 
previously made acquainted with fur.) 

V. Processes which Fur undergoes to fit it for use. 

1. The state in which the skins are received by the 
furrier. 

2. Cleansing— use of saw-dust — effect — state of skin — 
difference between the skin of arctic and tropical animals — 
manner in which it is softened and made thinner — prepara- 
tions for making it up into the articles required — laid in 
the saw-dust — why ? — effect — advantages taken of the pli- 
ability of the skin in this state. 



THE PIG. 191 

3. Dyeing — how the appearance of the darker furs is 
obtained in this operation — difference between the dyeino- 
of the fur seal and beaver, and that of other ar>imals — the 
simplicity of the first operation — tedium of the second, and 
skill necessary for the performance. 

LESSON^ XXXII. 

THE PIG. 

I. Get the children to name the parts of the pig, and 
give a description of each — as its head, small and tapering 
— its ears, large and flat, hanging down on each side of its 
head like two flaps — ^its eyes, small, round, and sleepy-look- 
ing — the snout, which connects the nostrils and the mouth, 
is large and armed with strong teeth, and terminates in a 
hard, gristly substance^the neck, short and thick — the 
body, cylindrical, and covered with long coarse hairs called 
bristles — the legs, short and thin — the feet, cloven — the 
skin, coarse and thick. 

II. The habits of the pig spoken of— as that it eats all 
kinds of vegetable and animal substances, even in a putrid 
state; also, bran and meal, and, indeed, anything that 
comes in its way — its habits dirty and disgusting — it is 
fond of rolling itself about in the mud — why? — ^to get rid 
of the vermin with which it is infested — and sj)ends all its 
time in eating and sleeping — it never attacks other animals 
but in self-defence — it seems to know when a storm is ap^ 
proaching, for it runs toward its sty screaming violently, 
and gathers all the straw into a heap to hide itself-— the pig 
is subject to a disease from its gluttonous habits — it lives 



192 FOURTH STEP. LESSON XXXII. 

for 18 or 20 years, and is found in almost every country of 
the world. 

III. Question the children as to the adaptation of its 
parts to its habits, &c., by comparing the one with the 
other, the children making the conclusions — the large ears, 
which flap about on a hot day and prevent the flies from 
getting into them and teasing the animal — does not require 
very strong sight — its small eyes are sufficient for the cir- 
cumstances in which God has placed it — also the long 
flexible snout, terminating in a ring of gristle, fitting it for 
grubbing in the mud for its food, and rooting up vegeta- 
bles ; were it furnished instead of this with a soft, fleshy 
mouth, the animal would not be able to do this without 
pain and inconvenience — the large, strong teeth, which 
help it in mastication — it is covered with stiff bristles ; were 
it covered with hair or fur, it could not roll about in the 
mud without collecting much dirt on its body — also, that 
its hard, thick skin makes it almost insensible to the blows 
it so often receives — ask who made the pig, and lead the 
children to see and admire the wisdom and goodness of 
God, in making all its parts so beautifully adaj^ted to their 
various uses. 

As the children are describing the parts, write the 
name and description of each on the board, that they may 
be aided when they consider the ada]3tation of the parts to 
the wants of the animal. The children should state this 
afterward on their slates. 



ON SOLUBILITY. 193 



OlSr SOLUBILITY. 

lesso:n^ xxxm. 

EEMAEKS. 

Lessons on objects may be followed by instruction 
on q^ lities with which the children are familiar. The 
foUo^^png lesson will explain what is here recommended : 

LESSON OX SOLUBILITY. 

The teacher develops the ideas for which she afterward 
gives terms, by means of simple experiments. First she 
fills half full with water three glass tubes ; she then adds 
to one a pinch of Epsom salts, to another a few grains of 
sugar, to the third some j^owdered marble, and shakes 
each for a few moments. 

Teacher. — I wish you to describe the changes which 
have taken place in the mixtures. 

Pupils. — 1st. The salts and the sugar have disappeared. 
2d. Melted in the water. 3d. Dissolved in the water. 
The marble remains the same. 

Teacher. — ^Right ; the salt and sugar have dissolved in 
the water ; the marble is not dissolved. Do you know 
what those substances are termed that dissolve m water ? 

Pupils. — Soluble. 

Teacher. — "What are those termed which do not dis- 
solve ? 

Pupils. — Insoluble. 



194 FOUETH STEP. LESSON XXXIII. 

Teacher. — Tell me the names of several soluble bodies ? 

Pupils. — Sugar, Epsom salts, gum, salt. 

Teacher. — Tell me some that are insoluble. 

PupiU. — Marble, stone, wood, tin, slate. 

Teacher. — What has become of the sugar that dis- 
solved ? Is it destroyed ? 

Pupils. — No ; it is in the water ? 

Teacher. — How do you know that it is in the water ? 

Pupils. — We can taste sugar when it is dissolved in our 
tea, or in water. 

Teacher. — Would it be useful to give a particular name 
to a liquid that has dissolved any substance, in order to 
distinguish it from another that has not any substance dis- 
solved in it ? 

Pupils. — Yes. 

Teacher. — Such liquids are called solutions^ what, 
therefore, is formed by the experiments made ? 

Pupils. — A solution of Epsom salts in water, and an- 
other of sugar in water. 

Teacher. — Is there a solution of marble formed ? 

Piqnls. — 1^0 ; for the marble would not dissolve. 

Teacher. — ^Does the water, or the sugar, or both to- 
gether, form the solution ? * 

Pupils. — Both together. 

Teacher. — A liquid used to dissolve a solid is termed a 
sohent. What can we say of water ? 

Piqnls. — It is a solvent of Epsom salts, sugar, &c. 

Teacher takes two equal portions of Epsom salts and 
places each in a tube, with equal quantities o£^ water. One 
is left undisturbed, while the other is heated in the flame 



ON SOLUBILITY. 195 

of a s|)irit lamp. The puj^ils are required to state what 
result they observe. 

Pupils. — The water that has been made hot has dis- 
solved the salts very quickly, and also in greater quantity. 
(The experiment should be made with the sugar also.) 

^6)5cAer.— What would you say of the effects of hot 
liquids on soluble bodies? 

Pupils. — Hot liquids dissolve substances more quickly 
and in greater quantities than cold ones. 

Teacher. — This is generally, but not invariably, true. 
There are some bodies upon which cold and hot water has 
the same effect. Common salt is an example. 

Teacher makes another experiment ; placing two equal 
quantities of sugar in water, allowing one to remain undis- 
turbed, and shaking or stirring the other. Pupils to tell 
the result observed. 

Pupils. — The sugar in the shaken tube dissolves first. 

Teacher. — Try and explain why this is so. 

Pupils. — ^When the tube is shaken, every part of the 
solid is affected by the solvent which dissolves it ; but 
when the sugar lies at the bottom, the water at the top 
does not help to dissolve it. 

Teacher then places a large lump of "sugar in a spoon, 
and puts it into a tumbler of water, holding it near the 
top ; and then, placing the tumbler between the pupils and 
the light, requires them to say what they observe. 

Pupils. — Little wavy lines fall from the spoon. 

Teacher. — Can you tell what causes this? Consider 
what is happening to the sugar. 

Pupils. — ^It is dissolving. 



196 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXXIII. 

Teacher. — What, then, is being formed ? 

Pupils. — A solution of sugar. 

Teacher. — What becomes of the solution, as it is 
formed ? 

Pupils. — ^It is that which we see falling through the 
water. 

Teacher. — Right ; but why does the solution sink in 
the water ? 

Pupils. — It must be because it is heavier than water. 

Teacher. — It is so ; every solution formed by a solid in 
water is heavier than water. Knowing this, can you tell 
me why men swim more easily in the sea than in fresh wa- 
ter, and even more easily still in the Dead Sea ? 

Pupils. — Sea water is a solution of salt, and being 
heavier than fresh water, a man would not so easily sink 
in it. 

Teacher next places a quantity of common salt in a 
tube, and pours over it about twice its weight in water, 
shaking it for some time — then asks what has happened. 

Pupils. — ^Part of the salt is dissolved, and part is left — 
the water does not dissolve it all. 

Teacher. — You are correct ; water will not dissolve 
more than one-third of its weight of salt ; and when it re- 
fuses to dissolve more, it is said to be saturated. What 
kind of a solution is then formed ? 

Pupils. — A saturated solution. 

Teacher. — Water, as we have seen, will dissolve more 
of some bodies, as Epsom salts, when it is heated. If we 
were to heat a cold solution of Ej^som salts, what do you 
think would happen ? 



ON SOLUBILITY. 197 

Pupils. — It would then dissolve more salts, showing 
that it would not be saturated by the same quantity of salt 
as it was when cold. 

Teacher puts some powdered sealing wax into two 
tubes, and pours into one cold water, into the other spirits, 
and then shaking them, asks the pupils to say what differ- 
ence they observed in the two. 

Pupils. — The sealing wax has dissolved in the spirits, 
and not in the water. 

Teacher. — Is sealing wax a soluble or insoluble body ? 

Pupils. — It is both ; soluble in spirits, insoluble in 
water. 

Teacher. — What kind of liquid is a solvent to sealing 
wax, and other resinous bodies ? 

Pupils. — Spirits. 

Teacher repeats the last experiment, substituting gum 
for sealing wax. 

Pupils. — ^The gum, contrary to the sealing wax, dis- 
solves in the water, but not in the spirit ; it is also soluble 
and insoluble. 

Teacher. — It is so ; but when no particular solvent is 
named, it is always understood to be water ; hence, in or- 
dinary language, gum is said to be soluble ; sealing wax 
insoluble; the solvent, water, being understood. India 
rubber is an example of a solid, insoluble in all ordinary 
liquids, but soluble in coal tar, naphtha; the solution thus 
obtained is used for making waterproof (Macintosh) cloth- 
ing, by employing it to cement together two thin layers of 
cloth. 

The pupils then should be required to mention all the 



198 FOUETH STEP. LESSON XXXIII. 

new terms they have learnt, or any like them ; as soluble, 
insoluble, solve, solvent, solution, dissolve, dissolving, solu- 
bility, insolubility, saturated. 

Teacher. — -Do you observe a resemblance in these 
words ? 

Pupils, — Yes ; they all, except saturated, have solve or 
solu in them. 

Teacher. — ^The meaning of that root, as it is called (for 
it is like the root of a plant, the part from which the other 
parts spring), is to loose ; it comes from a Latin word 
solvo^ to loose — the v being changed into u ; the word sol- 
uble then means, being able to be loosed, or to have parti- 
cles separated by the action of a liquid. What would in- 
soluble mean ? 

Pupils. — la stands for not, therefore it means not 
soluble. 

Teacher. — I wish you now to sum xx^ the various parts 
of the lesson, so as to connect the whole together. 

Bodies that are capable of dissolving ure called soluble/ 
those not capable of doing so, insoluble. When we speak 
of a body possessing solubiliti/^ we say it will dissolve. A 
liquid that dissolves a solid is termed a solvent; and a solu- 
tion is a solid dissolved in a liquid. When the solution 
will hold no more of the substance dissolved in it, we say 
it is saturated. 

Teacher. — These terms are sometimes used metaphori- 
cally — that is, apj)lied to what is of a different nature ; try 
and remember some examples. 

Pupils. — ^To solve a question. 

Teacher. — Which means, to take it to pieces or un- 



ON THE SENSES. 199 

loose it. What similar use of any of tliese terms do you 
recollect ? 

Pupils. — Dissolution of partnership. 

Teacher. — ^What does this mean ? 

Puinls. — ^That it is unloosened; the partners are no 
longer united together. 

Teacher. — And what do we mean when we call death a 
dissolution? 

Pupils.— Ti\sX the body crumbles to pieces; its parts 
are all loosened or separated. 



ON THE SENSES. 

LESSON^ XXXIV. 

The children haying been already exercised in determin- 
ing by which of the senses they discover the presence of 
any quality, may be led to consider more fully the senses 
themselves. The first two lessons are drawn out for the use 
of the teacher ; the substance only of the others is given. 

Teacher.— ^o you understand how you gained the 
knowledge of various qualities ? 

Children. — By our senses. 

TeacAer.— How do you know when a thing is red or 
blue? 

Children. — By sight. 

Teacher. — How, if you were blind, could you form a 
correct idea of color? What other means is there of 
gaining this knowledge ? 

Children. — None. 



200 FOURTH STEP. JL^ESSON XXXIV. 

Teacher. — ^True; and to ascertain this point, a blind 
man was once questioned as to what notion he had of scar- 
let ; he said he thought that it must be like the sound of a 
trumpet. It is obvious that he had no correct idea of a 
quality discoverable by the sight, and he could only com- 
pare it wuth one that he had acquired through the medium 
of another sense. Can you tell me the reason why j^ersons 
born deaf cannot speak ? 

Children. — They cannot imitate sounds, because they 
never heard any. 

Teacher. — Since, then, deaf persons have no correct 
ideas of sound, nor blind persons of color, how do w^e ac- 
quire our ideas of sound and color ? 

Children. — By the means of the senses of seeing and 
hearing. 

Teacher. — How, then, do we suppose our minds become 
stored with ideas ? 

Children. — By the exercise of our senses.* 

Teacher. — Yes ; and if you had once had the idea of a 
dog formed in your mind, by seeing such an animal, when 
a dog is mentioned you can recall the idea, and fancy one 
immediately, as if it were present ; your mind will also 
perform the same operation when a quality is spoken of, 
which you have previously seen in some object. Again, 
if you see a dog unlike any you have observed before, you 
compare it with the species with which you are acquainted, 
and mark the difference between them. If I say that I 

* It is probable that children would not at once arrive at this conclu- 
sion. The teacher must, in that case, lead them to it by easy questions. 



li 



ON THE SENSES. 201 

have some green paper, cannot you immediately conceive 
the color of which I speak ? 

Children. — Yes. 

Teacher. — ^Did you, then, exercise your sight ? 

Children. — o^o. 

Teacher. — How, then, could you have the idea of 
green ? 

Children. — We remembered it. 

Teacher. — By what means did you first obtain the idea ? 
. Children!. — By seeing something green. 

Teacher. — ^What power of the mind do you exercise in 
recalling an idea ? 

Children. — Our memory. 

LESSON XXXV. 

FEELING OR TOUCH. 

Teacher. — ^What part of your body is the organ of 
touch ? 

Children. — ^It seems all over our body. 

Teacher. — ^Tell me some parts that do not possess the 
sense of feeling. 

Children. — Our hair, nails, and teeth. 

Teacher. — ^And in other animals, what parts are found 
destitute of sensation ? 

Children. — ^The hoofs, horns, claws, feathers, wool, hair, 
&c. 

Teacher. — ^What other word do we use to express the 

presence of sensation? 

Children. — Sensibility. 
9* 



202 FOlTETH STEP. — LESSON XXXV. 

Teacher. — ^What word would you use to express the 
absence of sensation ? What syllable prefixed to a word 
gives it a negative naeaning ? 

Children. — In. 

Teacher. — ^Well, what word will express the absence of 
sensation ? 

Children. — Insensibility. 

Teacher. — The parts then that you have named are 
insensible, and, with the exception of these, the sense of 
feeling exists everywhere throughout the body ; but what 
part of it is particularly adapted, by its form, to become 
the organ of the sense ? 

Children. — ^The hand. 

Teacher. — ^Tell me what qualities we can discover in 
objects by this sense ? 

Children. — That they are hard, soft, rough, smooth, 
long, short, sharp, blunt, round, square, cylindrical, conical, 
heavy, light, fluid, liquid, dry, wet, hot, cold, &c. 

Teacher. — By what general term would you express 
such qualities as round, square, conical, &c. ? 

Children. — By shape. 

Teacher. — By what general term would you express 
such qualities as large, small, &c. ? 

Children. — By size. 

Teacher. — By what general term would you express 
such qualities as rough, smooth, &c. ? 

Children. — By Jciiid of surface. 

Teacher. — By what general term would you express 
such qualities as hard, soft, fluid, tenacious, &c.? 

Children. — By kind of substatice. 



ON THE SENSES. 203 

Teacher. — By what general term would you express 
such qualities as heavy, light, &c. ? 

Children. — By weight 

Teacher. — Now arrange the qualities which you dis- 
cover by your feeling under five general heads, i. 6., shape^ 
size, kind of surface, hind of substance, weight. 

The children having performed this exercise, the teach- 
er may mention the following facts. 

Teacher. — ^The quickness and accuracy of the sense of 
feeling is, we. find, much increased by exercise, as is exem- 
plified in blind persons, the defect of whose sight is fre- 
quently compensated, in a great measure, by an exquisite 
sensitiveness of touch. Bats also appear to possess this 
sense in a remarkable degree. They have been observed, 
even after loss of sight, and with their ears and nostrils 
stopped, to fly through intricate windings and passages, 
without striking against the walls, and also to avoid lines 
and cords placed in their way. The expanded membrane 
that serves them for wings is probably the seat of this deli- 
cate sense of feeling, which so admirably fits them for their 
nocturnal and dark abodes. The palpi, or feelers of in- 
sects, possess the same quality very acutely, and this en- 
ables them to explore the surface of bodies in search of 
food, and warns them also of the approach of danger. 

The class should be required, at the conclusion of the 
lesson, to draw up some account of this sense, mentioning 
where it resides, what qualities faU within its cognizance, 
and to recapitulate any incidental information received 
during the lesson. 



204 rOUKTH STEP. LESSON XXXVI. 

LESSON XXXVI. 

SIGHT. 

The eyes are the organs of sight, and are beautifully 
adapted for the office they have to perform. They are so 
constructed as to allow us to see thmgs near, or at a dis- 
tance ; to confine ourselves to the inspection of one ob- 
ject, or to take in at once a large sphere of vision. The 
part of the eye which admits the light may be expanded 
or contracted, according as the rays are more or less pow- 
erful. This fact is remarkably exemplified in the eyes of 
the cat and of the owl. Indeed nothing afibrds a more 
striking proof of the kind providence of God than the 
beautiful adaptation of the eyes of animals to their peculiar 
modes of life ; those of moles, fishes, and birds, are remark- 
able illustrations of this fact.* 

Of all the senses, that of sight is in most frequent and 
continual exercise. It fills the mind with the greatest va- 
riety of ideas, which it gathers not only from the objects 
of nature and of art, but from the writings of the wise and 
good of all ages. 

The qualities we discover by this sense are : transpa- 
rent, semi-transj)arent, translucent, opaque, glimmering, 
bright, dark, sparkling, dull ; and the various modifications 
of color, size, and shape. Many may be ascertained either 
by touch or sight ; as those of size, form, kind of surface, 
and substance. 

* The teacher should here fully explain to the class the circumstances 
referred to, and give other similar instances. 



ON THE SENSES. 205 

LESSON XXXYII. 

HEAKING. 

The ears are the organs of this sense. In many ani- 
mals the ear has externally the form of a trumpet, and is 
well adapted for gathering sound and bringing it to a 
focus ; in man it contains many convolutions and channels, 
which receive the vibrations of air in every direction, and 
convey them to the part called the drum, which is the 
actual seat of this sense. 

The formation of the ears of animals is beautifully ac- 
commodated to their peculiar habits of life. In beasts of 
prey the trumpet part is inclined forward, easily to catch 
the sound of those they are pursuing. But animals whose 
chief means of protection is flight, have these organs 
turned backward, that they may be readily apprised of the 
approach of their enemies. 

The ears are the medium through which all sensations 
of sound reach the mind ; without them, we should be de- 
prived of the advantages of verbal instruction, the pleas- 
ures of conversation, and the charms of music. 

The motion of the parts of a body, or the collision of 
one body against another, occasions a vibration in the air, 
which is similar to the effect produced on water when a 
stone is thrown into it. Circle succeeds circle, till the 
power of motion is exhausted ; and just as any light sub- 
stance within the influence of these undulations is agitated 
by them, so, when our ear is within reach of these vibra- 
tions of air, the sensation of sound is produced.* The 

* This account may appear, at first sight, above the comprehension of 



206 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXXVIII. 

chirping note of the cricket is occasioned simply by the 
constant friction of a little memhrane against its wings. 
When two bodies are rubbed or struck together, we may 
in most cases be able to determine, by the sounds emitted, 
the nature of the substances brought into contact. Very 
different sounds are occasioned by the collision of metals 
from that which wood gives out ; and the sound produced 
from hollow bodies is very unlike that resulting from solid 
ones. There are various kinds of sounds ; as shrill, deep, 
grating, harsh, loud, soft, harmonious, sweet. Animals 
produce different sounds. The cat mews, the dog barks, 
the lion roars, the ass brays, the cow lows, the horse 
neighs, the rook caws, the goose cackles, the cock crows, 
the fly buzzes, the bee hums. Man speaks, laughs, cries, 
shouts, groans, whistles, sings. 

LESSON xxxym. 

SMELL. 

The nose is the organ of this sense; its cavities are 
lined with a thin membrane supplied with nerves connect- 
ed with a principal one, which is essential to the perception 
of smell. 

By means of this sense we derive all our ideas of odor. 
Though not so important to man as the other senses, yet 
it adds much to his pleasure ; and to many animals it is 
essential, directing them in search of their food. The 

children ; a class, however, which had gone through the preceding exer- 
cises, was found fully capable of understanding it. 



ON THE SENSES. 207 

scent of dogs is peculiarly fine, and on this account they 
are employed in the chase. 

Odor is produced by exceedingly small particles called 
effluvia, which escape from odorous bodies; these diffuse 
themselves in the atmosphere, and whenever they reach 
the olfactory nerves they occasion the sensation of smell. 
Heat promotes the escape of these particles, which are of 
a volatile nature ; hence, when the sun shines brightly, the 
flowers are more fragrant. 

LESSON^ XXXIX. 

TASTE. 

The mouth is the organ of taste. The skin within the 
mouth is finer and more delicate than that of the rest of 
the body, it is supplied with a great number of blood ves- 
sels, and covered with innumerable papillce. Sapid bodies, 
however, before they excite the sensation of taste, require 
to be moistened by the saliva. In graminivorous animals 
the papillae are defended from the action of the stiff bristles 
of grass and corn by a strong skin, which being perforated, 
allows the dissolved juice to reach the seat of taste. The 
principal qualities discoverable by the taste are bitter, 
sweet, acid, pungent, acrid, luscious. There are many 
others, which derive their names from the substances in 
which they exist : as salt, spicy, &c. 

Many animals have some one of the senses in great 
perfection, but in none are they all found in the same de- 
gree as in man. 



FIFTH STEP. 

INTRODUCTOKY K E M A R K S . 

The following lessons may be advantageously used as a 
first exercise in composition. The object should be present- 
ed to the children, and they should continue, as before, to 
make their own observations upon it. Questions should 
then be addressed to them, calculated to elicit their 
knowledge of its natural history, manufacture, or compo.- 
sition : and further particulars should afterward be com- 
municated by the teacher, to render their information more 
complete. After having rearranged and repeated the mat- 
ter so obtained, the teacher should examine the class, and 
require a written account. Children from ten to fourteen 
years of age may derive great improvement from this exer- 
cise in composition. It will stimulate their attention, fur- 
nish a test of their having well understood the lesson, and 
lead them to arrange and express their ideas with clearness 
and facility. Artificial substances should be exhibited, both 
in their raw and manufactured state. Thus, in the lesson on 
flax, the plant itself, the fibres when separated from the 
stem, the thread when spun, and the various articles into 



GLASS. 209 

which it is manufactured, may be brought before the class, 
and likewise pictures of the machinery employed in the 
manufacture. 

Many of the lessons in this Step will contain too much 
matter to be presented at one time to the pu2)ils, and must 
therefore be divided. 

The information given is exclusively for the use of the 
teacher, as reference in the preparation of lessons. 

Many of the lessons have been taken, with some modi- 
fications, from " Information on Common Objects." Much 
aid has also been derived in their preparation from the 
"IN'ew American Cyclopaedia," and, in a few instances, 
passages have been literally incorporated. This is a work 
which teachers would do well to consult where accessible. 

The following sketches, three on glass, and three on 
silk, are given as specimens of the way succeeding lessons 
may be treated. 

LESSON^ I. 

I. Different Icinds of Glass compared, — Bring together 
several pieces of different kinds of glass, and ask the chil- 
dren to name each — as, crown glass, plate glass, sheet glass, 
flint glass, bottle glass. These pieces should be examined 
by the children, that they may point out the difference. 
They should name the various uses to which they have 
seen glass applied, and the particular use of each kind ; as, 
for windows, mirrors, drinking glasses, decanters, orna- 
ments, bottles, watch glasses, &c. 

Qualities of Glass. — ^The class should be called on to 
name the qualities in glass which render it useful ; as trans- 



210 FIFTH STEP. LESSON I. 

parency, hardness, durability, not being affected by weather 
or acids, &c. 

Glass contrasted icith substances used in former times. 
Other substances possessing the same qualities, but in a 
less degree, should be shown the class, named, and a con- 
trast drawn, for the purpose of proving the superiority of 
glass over these substances. Thus, horn has not the same 
degree of transparency ; parchment is not so durable ; 
•mica does not admit the light so freely; and none of the 
three have the same bright, cheerful, beautiful appear- 
ance that glass has. 

II. Various substances used in the manufacture,— ^\iQ. 
various substances used in the manufacture of glass should 
then be produced and named — as, sand, an alkali (as j^earl- 
ash), nitre, oxide of lead, oxide of manganese, oxide of ar- 
senic, lime, &c.; and the children should be led to see that 
each ingredient imparts a particular quality to glass. 
Pearlash, which is much used in flint glass, imparts much 
clearness. Oxide of lead is used to cause it to vitrify at a 
much lower temperature than it otherwise would ; to in- 
crease the density, and to impart tenacity. 

III. Origin and history of the manufacture, — Informa- 
tion should be given to the children with respect to the 
progress of the manufacture, and of its supposed origin. 
They should be told of the glass beads and imitations of 
precious gems found in Egypt with mummies more than 
3,000 years old, and of hieroglyphics that must be as old 
as the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt ; the relics found 
in the ruins of Nineveh, and . other facts which seem to 
point to the ancient inhabitants of that country as the first 



1l 



GLASS. 211 

manufacturers of glass ; the many fine specimens of glass in 
urns and vases wbicli arc seen even at the present clay, and 
which show to what an extent the manufacture was carried. 
Tliey should be told of the introduction of glass making 
into Europe — first into Italy, finally into England ; from 
thence into the United States by deserters from the British 
army in the time of the Revolution ; but that glass was 
used very much in England long before- the art of making 
it was known to the English ; for even as far back as the 
time of the Druids, we find glass beads and amulets worn, 
wdiich w^ere procured in barter with Syrians, who came to 
Great Britain for tin. 

Recapitulation, — After receiving this information, which 
should be thoroughly worked into the children's minds as 
the teacher proceeds, they should reproduce the matter on 
their slates. 

lesso:n^ il 

I. Glass house and tools used, — In this lesson the chil- 
dren should (after recapitulating the last lesson) give a de- 
scription of any glass house which they may have seen, and 
also of the different tools used by those who work in glass. 
If they have not seen one, a small model or picture may be 
shown, representing the different parts. They should de- 
scribe the conical shaped building — the furnace in the cen- 
tre, with the working holes at the sides — the pots, which 
are made of the finest clay — their position and number — 
tools used by the glass blower, as iron tube, shears, punt- 
ing rod, tongs, &c. They should then be asked as to how 
the men on the premises are generally employed ; some in 



212 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON II. 

glass blowing ; others in attending to the furnace, carrying 
coals, and others watching the pots, &g. 

II. Processes gone through in the manufacture of Glass. 
The children, having noticed how the workmen were em- 
ployed, will be prepared to learn the different processes 
gone through in the manufacture of glass. As a difference 
exists in the making of each kind, the children may be led 
to speak of window glass only, as they are better acquaint- 
ed with that than with the others, and more frequently see 
how that particular kind is used. They should first be told 
that window glass is that which is generally used for win- 
dow panes ; and should say what qualities window glass re- 
quires that are not of so much importance in other kinds ; 
as hardness, transparency, and durability ; and they should 
then be led to see that in order to give the glass these 
qualities, a slight difference must be made both in the 
quality and quantity of the ingredients used. The children 
should be told that such substances as lead, or metallic ox- 
ides, make glass soft and plastic ; and they will at once see 
that very little of these must be used in making window 
glass, in which greater hardness is requisite. They should 
be told of the different processes gone through — first, the 
preparation of the sand by water, for the purpose of re- 
moving any impurities — next, the making of frit, and what 
frit is — the process of melting it down after having kept 
it for some time. The metal in a liquid state should be 
spoken of^the time allowed to pass before skimming the 
metal. The children should be told that broken glass is 
very useful at this stage of the manufacture. The glass 
thus used is known by the name of cullet, and is thrown in 



GLASS. 213 

with the boiling metal. They should be told next of the 
workman — the tube which he uses — his mode of forming 
the mass of metal — first, to a pear shape — then, to a flat 
surface. A description should be given of the process 
of annealing — what is its object — why it is necessary — 
what qualities it will impart to the glass. 

This lesson should be reproduced in writing. 

LESSOR III. 

I. On Stained Glass. — Several pieces of glass of differ- 
ent colors should be brought before the children. They 
should examine and describe them, and ascertain whether 
the colors are merely external, or whether they are such as 
cannot be removed without destroying the glass. They 
should be asked where they had seen glass of different 
'colors ? — If they had seen figures represented on glass by 
means of colors — and where ? They should be led to name 
the kind of buildings in which colored glass is generally 
seen; such as churches, or ecclesiastical edifices of any 
kind ; particularly in those where the object is to make an 
imposing appearance. Many churches and cathedrals have 
very fine windows of stained glass. 

n. The teacher under this head will describe the pro- 
cess of glass staining, dwelling on the following points : — 
The pattern, or drawing of the figures to be represented, 
which is first made. The mode of placing this behind the 
glass for the purpose of painting the pattern, the mate- 
rials being prepared beforehand. A description should be 
given of the muffle, or iron box, in which the glass is 



214 riFTU STEP. LESSON IV. 

burned. The care necessary on the joart of the glass stain- 
ers should be noticed. The fusing of the glass and its ab- 
sorj^tion of coloring — the time allowed in the furnace — the 
removal of the loose particles of paint. The class should 
be told that the color is produced by fusing gold, silver, 
and copper with the glass ; and that gold is used in pro- 
ducing rose color and ruby; copper in producing blue, 
green, and lemon ; and silver and lead in producing yellow 
and orange ; they will easily see what colors in glass bring 
the most money, which are most expensive. 

LESSON lY. 

SKETCHES OP A SEKIES OP LESSONS ON SILK AND ITS 
MANUFACTURE. 

For an Advanced Class of Children. 

INTRODTJOTION AND NATURAL niSTOPwY OF THE SILK WOEM. 

I. Object examined. — A piece of silk is given to the 
children, w^hich they carefully examine, and are then called 
upon to describe its appearance,' as, smooth, soft, glossy — 
next, they discover and name the qualities upon which its 
use and beauty depend, viz. : its strength, which is great, 
considering the fineness of the fibres of which it is com- 
posed — its lightness — lustre — capability of taking the finest 
dyes — ^it resists fire better than cotton fabrics do — is beau- 
tifully soft to the touch, and extremely pliable, so that it 
can be arranged in folds. 

[Note. — Specimens of the insect m all its stages should be shown to 
the children, and constantly referred to in the course of the lesson.] 



SILK. 215 

II. Description of the Silk Worm. — ^Insect and its 
habits described. Show the children that the silk worm is 
erroneously termed a worm. Why ? It is really a kind 
of caterj^illar, and passes through all the changes which in- 
sects undergo. 

Changes which the insect undergoes. — Many of the 
children have, perhaps, tried to rear a silk worm, and will 
therefore know that it is hatched from an Qg^^ in size like 
a mustard seed; and is, w^hen first hatched, small, and of 
a dark color ; in a few days it becomes gray, then tinged 
with the color of its food ; it attains its full size in about 
eight weeks, and it has during this period changed its 
skin four or five times. Children to determine why this is 
necessary — its continually increasing size. The insect re- 
mains in a quiet state before doing this ; refrains from eat- 
ing ; then bursts the old skin near the head, and works its 
way out. 

Length, when full grown, from two and a half to three 
inches. What does it then do ? Begins to spin. Tell the 
children that it selects a corner in which to spin, then 
moves its head from side to -side, and fixes the thread at 
difierent points, so as completely to enclose itself — con- 
tinues to spin for about five days — during this time it has 
become much shorter — changes its skin, and takes the form 
of a chrysalis, enclosed in a dark brown case, and is in a 
torpid state — remains in this state two or three weeks — 
then changes into the moth or perfect insect. The children 
will, perhaps, wonder how the moth can escape from the 
cocoon in which it is so completely enclosed. Tell them 
that the little creature does this by softening a portion of 



216 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON IV. 

the cocoon with a fluid which it has the power of forming. 
It is now, as they will see from the specimen, a moth of a 
pale cream color, covered with fine down, and furnished 
with small, comb-like feelers. After a short time it lays its 
eggs, firmly cementing them to the substance on which 
they are deposited ; and the object of its existence being 
thus accomplished, it shortly dies. Children should draw a 
comparison between the animal in its different stages, as to 
appearance, organs, and habits. 

III. Food. — On what does the silk worm feed ? The 
leaves of the mulberry tree. Children will know, that as 
this tree is not an evergreen, the leaves can only be pro- 
cured at certain seasons of the year. Has this anything 
to do with the hatching of the eggs ? Yes ; they must 
only be hatched in those seasons when the leaves can be 
obtained ? 

Means used to 2^^event the eggs from hatcJwig at a 
wrong seaso7i. — Sometimes the eggs are sent from one 
country to another. How are they prevented from hatch- 
ing on the journey ? They are first carefully dried ; placed 
in glass vials, closely sealed, to exclude the air and moist- 
ure, and then immersed in earthen pots filled with cold 
water, which is constantly changed. Why ? To keep it 
cool. Why should so much pains be taken to exclude the 
air from the egg^ and to prevent their becoming warm ? 
Because the eggs of the silk worm, like those of the 
chicken, and other animals with which the children are 
acquainted, are hatched by heat. 

Manner of hatching the eggs. — ^The children might 
then be told the different means used to hatch the eggs. 



SILK. 217 

That in some countries the loeasants fold them in small 
paper packets, and keep them in their bosoms until the 
,warmth j)J'epares them for hatching ; in others, that the 
warmth of the sun is employed ; but that the plan most 
generally adopted is to hatch them by placing them in 
rooms artificially heated. 

IV. Countries of -the Silk Worm, — ^A warm climate is 
necessary to the well-being of the silk worm. Children 
name and point out on the map some warm countries, as 
France, Italy, India, China, &c. They might then be told 
that the silk worm is reared in nearly all the southern coun- 
tries in Europe : to a very great extent in India and China. 
That it was originally a native of China, from whence arti- 
cles manufactured of silk were exported in early ages to 
different parts of Asia and Europe ; and that the raw mate- 
rial furnished employment to manufacturers in Persia, Tyre, 
and other countries. That in the United States many ef- 
forts have been made to introduce its manufacture, but 
with very limited success. 

How introduced into Europe. — The silk worm was in- 
troduced into Europe a. d. 552, by two Persian monks, 
who were missionaries, and had travelled as far as China, 
where they viewed with great curiosity the dress of the 
Chinese, and carefully watched the manufacture. On leav- 
ing China they went to Constantinople, and entrusted the 
Emperor Justinian with their secret ; he encouraged them 
by promising them a reward if they succeeded in intro- 
ducing the manufacture into Europe. They returned to 
China, with much difficulty obtained a quantity of eggs, 

cunningly concealed them in a hollow cane, brought them 
10 



218 FIPTU STEP. — LESSON V. 

to Constantinople, hatched them, tended the insects with 
great cafe, and instructed the Romans in the art of manu- 
facturing silk. Tlie children will thus see that the silk 
manufacture in Europe had a very small beginning — a 
caneful of eggs being the means of establishing the manu- 
facture, and of furnishing the Europeans with a luxury, 
for which large sums had hitherto been exacted from them 
by their Oriental neighbors. 

This and the following lessons should bo reproduced by 
the children in writing. 

LESSO]^ V. 

BEIEF DESCEIPTION OP THE SILK MANUFACTURE. 

I. Different 2'>T0cesses in the onanKfacture. — How is the 
silk obtained from the cocoon ? What is the first process 
in the manufacture ? The destruction of the chrysalis. 
How is this accomplished ? By placing it in a heated 
oven. What is next done ? The rough, outer floss, 
which is comparatively useless, is removed, and the co- 
coons are thrown into a vessel of hot v/ater placed over a 
fire. Why ? To loosen the thread. The whole is now 
stirred with a little broom, which catches the loose ends 
of the threads. Several of these threads taken together 
are wound upon a reel. Why take several together ? Be- 
cause the fibres are so fine that one taken alone would not 
be strong enough, it would quickly break. The silk wound 
ofi" is next tied up into hanks ready for the manufacturer, 
and is known by the name of " raw silk.^^ 



i 



SILK. 219 

[Note.— It is desirable that drawings or models of the machines used 
in the different stages of the manufacture should be placed before the 
children, and constantly referred to by the teacher while describing the 
various processes. Except with the most advanced pupils the remainder 
of this and the next sketch may be omitted.] 

11. Various ojyerations tv/iich the raw silk undergoes. 

Briefly describe the various processes which the raw silk 
passes through, as winding, sjjinning, twisting, cleaning, 
weaving, and dyeing ; all of which, except the last, are 
known under the general term " sii/c throioijig:'' 

Windiiig. — In this operation each hank of silk is ex- 
tended upon a six-sided reel {swift). A number of swifts 
are arranged side by side, upon an axis, on either side of a 
frame. Above the swifts are the bobbins, similarly ar- 
ranged, one bobbin for each swift. The bobbins connect- 
ed with the swifts by the ends of the hanks of silk are 
now set in motion, causing the swifts to turn round and 
wind the silk. The machine requires constant attention. 
Why? For the purpose of joining the ends broken in 
winding, putting on the hanks, and exchanging the bob- 
bins. 

Spinning. — The silk is now sorted according to its 
qualities and fineness. The next process is that of spinning 
or twisting each thread, which is done in a mill, where it 
acquires that form called " singles.'" How is this effected ? 
The long thread of silk is unwound from the bobbins on 
to a long roller, and in its passage from one to the other 
becomes twisted. How can this be ? The bobbins are 
fixed upright, and the roller is placed horizontally above 
them ; this circumstance alone is sufiicient to twist the silk 



220 FIFTH STEP. LESSON V. 

wliile passing from one to the other. Two or more of 
these singles. are now twisted slightly together in the man- 
ner above described ; the next operation is to spin these 
combined threads into a firm, thick thread, which is per- 
formed in the same manner as the former spinning. 

Cleaning. — One process only remains before the silk is 
fit for the weaver, viz., the cleaning. How is this per- 
formed ? The silk is boiled for four hours in a large 
quantity of water, into w^hich a good deal of soap has been 
thrown. Why does the silk require cleaning ? Because it 
still retains the gum, with which the insect covers it, which 
if not removed, renders the silk harsh to the touch, and 
unfit to receive the dye. By cleaning, however, the silk 
becomes soft and glossy. It is now sent to the loom, 
where it is woven into various fabrics. In a long piece of 
woven silk the long threads are called the " toarp^'* and 
the cross threads the ''^ weft^'' or "idjoo/*." These words, 
and any others neio to the children which may occur in the 
lesson, should be written upon the board, and the heads of 
the lesson also, as it greatly assists the children in after- 
ward reproducing it on their own slates. Before conclud- 
ing the subject of weaving^ the teacher might show the 
children the great care and patience necessary on the part 
of the weaver, in consequence of the fineness of his work ; 
a piece of silk 20 inches in width, often requiring 8,000 
threads, all of which must be arranged with the greatest 
regularity. 

Dyeing. — Can the children think of any process which 
the silk has yet to undergo before it is fit for sale ? Of 
what color is it now ? Did the cleaning alter the color ? 



SILK. 221 

No ; it is still of a bright yellow color. But white silk is 
sometimes wanted — how is this obtained ? The silk must 
be " hleaclied^'' made white, and then it is fit also for the 
dyer, who, by means of his colors, can make the silk of 
any shade he pleases. 

LESSON VI. 

SKETCH III. — BKIEF DESCRIPTIOX OF THE VAKIOUS FABRICS 
COMPOSED OF SILK. 

[XoTE. — The required specimens should be procured, and shown to 
the children.] 

I. Articles made of SilJc named. — Children furnish the 
list. Velvet — silks, plain and brocaded — Persian — damask 
— ribbon — satin — sarsnet, and crape. The value of silk 
inferred from the number of articles manufactured from it, 
and the great difference in their texture. 

II. Description of the Fabrics. — Velvet — One of the 
most beautiful productions of the silk loom now manufac- 
tured. In addition to the warp and woof, a soft shag or 
pile is produced by inserting short pieces of silk thread, 
doubled, under the woof; these stand up in so large a 
number and so compactly as to conceal the interlacings of 
the warp and woof. The children will see, from examining 
a piece of velvet, that it is this silky pile which imparts to 
velvet its softness and beauty. 

Brocade. — Brocaded silks are those adorned with flow- 
ers or other figures of silk. 

Gauze. — A material in which the smallest quantity of 
silk is employed for a given size of woven fabric. How can 



222 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON VI. 

this be done ? If the gauze \yere woven in the usual way, 
the threads being so fine, it would be very weak. How is 
this prevented ? The threads are made to cross and over- 
loop each other, (something like the threads of a net,) and 
thus the material acquires the requisite strength. The 
children to discover this intert\vining of the threads by 
carefully examining a piece of gauze. 

Bomhazine^ Poplin^ and Lustre, — Examined, and found 
to be substances composed of a mixture of silk and worst- 
ed, the two latter containing much more silk than the 
former. 

Satin. — A twilled silk, owing its peculiar lustre to the 
number of threads of warp passed over by the woof before 
it passes under one of them. When taken out of the loom, 
it presents a slight degree of roughness or flossiness. Hoav 
is this removed ? The children can all tell how their aprons 
look after they have been washed and dried. Are they fit 
to wear ? No ; they look rough. How do they feel ? 
Very stiff and uncomfortable. How can tliis roughness be 
removed? They must be ironed to make them smooth. 
Then how do they think satin can be made so nice and 
smooth ? Just in the same manner, it is passed between 
heated iron rollers, which smooth down the surface, and 
give to it that beautiful lustre peculiar to satin. 



EEMAEKS. 223 



THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 

EEMAEKS. 

The nature of tlie objects which we derive from the 
vegetable kingdom, and their utility to man, depend so 
much on the structure and living action of the plants, 
that some introductory account of the latter seems de- 
sirable. 

The most important parts of a plant are: the root, 
stem, branches, leaves, buds, flowers, fruit, and seeds. 

The root is that part of a plant which grows undei 
ground ; it serves the purpose of fixing the plant firmly 
and of absorbing moisture for its support ; it is usually 
more or less fibrous, and the absorption of moisture takes 
jDlace almost entirely at the very extremities or points of 
the fibres. 

In some plants the root often serves as a storehouse of 
nourishment for their growth during the following year. 
This is the case in those plants which, like the carrot and 
parsnip, instead of flowering in the first year of their 
growth, produce and store up nourishment for the second 
year, w^hen they bring forth flowers and seeds. Plants 
growing in this manner are termed biennials, and the nu- 
triment stored up during the first year in their large fleshy 
roots is often used for food by men and animals. 

The stem or trunk of a tree consists of three distinct 
parts; in the centre is a light, soft, cellular substance, 
termed the pith ; which in some plants, as the elder, is suf- 
ficiently large to be readily examined ; its use appears to be 



224 FIFTH STEP. — VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 

to convey the sap upward to tlie leaves when the plant is 
very young, and before other channels are formed for its 
ascent ; as the plant increases in age, the pith becomes dry, 
is apparently of no further use, and may b'^- removed with- 
out injury to the life of the tree. 

The pith is surrounded by the wood, which consists of 
tough, strong fibres, firmly united together, so as to form a 
solid substance ; these fibres are arranged side by side, 
running in the direction of the stem or trunk : they cause 
what is termed the grain of the wood, and are cut across 
when a piece of wood is cut against the grain^ and torn 
from each other when it is split loitli the grain. 

Every summer a fresh quantity of wood is formed 
round that previously existing ; each season's growth is 
therefore of necessity a hollow cylinder, inclosing the wood 
previously formed, and the appearance it exhibits when 
the tree is cut across is, of course, circular, the whole 
mass of wood being formed of a series of such circles, 
each the result of one year's growth ; it follows that by 
counting them we may ascertain the age of the tree ; the 
first year's wood is next the pith, that formed the second 
year is outside that of the first year, and so on ; a fresh 
circle being deposited each year external to those pre- 
viously formed. 

If a single circle is examined, it will be found that the 
vessels are larger and more open in that part which is 
nearest the centre of the tree ; this arises from the fact 
that this is formed in the spring, when growth is more 
rapid, and the leaves require a larger quantity of sap ; in 
some woods, the great difierence between the inner and 



KEMAKKS. 225 

outer part of eacli circle, renders the rings very distinct, 
as in oak, ash, and elm ; in others, as beech and mahog- 
any, the texture is much more uniform ; in the wood of 
the fir tribe, the i^ores are filled with resinous matter, ren- 
dering the circles very evident. 

The oldest wood in a tree is toward the centre of the 
trunk ; this is termed the heart wood ; the youngest and 
softest is at the outside, and is called the sa]3 wood, be- 
cause it is through it that the sap rises to supply the 
leaves ; the sap wood is gradually converted into lieart 
wood as it grows older, the pores and interstices being 
filled up and darkened in color by the thickened juices, 
which descend from the leaves through the back, and 
reach the older circles by means of a series of passages 
passing inward from the bark to the pith. These medul- 
lary passages or rays (termed by carpenters the silver 
grain, from their giving a glistening appearance to the 
wood when it is cut parallel to them) are large and readily 
observed in oak or beech, while in fir wood they are small, 
numerous, and not easily distinguished. For purposes re- 
quiring strength and durability only the heart wood is 
employed ; timber trees should be felled at mature age, 
when the heart wood is well formed, and before any decay 
has commenced ; the best season for felling is winter, 
when the sap is present in very small quantities ; after 
having been felled, they should be seasoned by an expo- 
sure to dry air for at least two years, otherwise the wood 
will warp and split when used ; well-seasoned timber em- 
ployed in dry situations is extremely durable ; if wholly 
sunk in water, the durability is much lessened, and, when 
10* 



226 FIFTH STEP. ^VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 

exjDosed to alternate moisture and drought, all timber de- 
cays rapidly. 

In its power of resisting pressure, timber may be re^ 
garded as incompressible in the direction of its fibres ; but 
pressed at right angles to the grain, the softer kinds, such 
as fir, shrink considerably ; in, resisting a force pulling in 
oi3posite directions, timber possesses enormous strength; 
bars of oak or fir one inch square being capable of suj^port- 
ing upward of five tons ; in bearing a cross strain, the dif- 
ferent kinds vary considerably, some, as fir, <&c., being 
much weakened by the tendency of the annual circles to 
separate from each other. 

^ The uses of the wood to the tree are to give firmness 
and strength to the stem, and to serve as a channel for the 
ascent of the sap to the leaves and flowers. 

Around the wood is the bark. This also is formed in 
circles, but they are so pressed together by the growth of 
the wood beneath that they cannot readily be counted. 
The bark varies much in character in difierent trees, being 
sometimes fibrous, as in the bass tree, so much employed by 
gardeners and nurserymen ; leathery, as in the bark of the 
birch, of which boxes and canoes are made; or corky, as in 
the cork tree of Spain and Portugal. 

In the trees of tropical climates the arrangement of 
the woody matter in the stems is very dissimilar to that 
occurring in the trees of temperate countries ; there is, as 
it were, a mixture of pith and woody fibres together, and 
no trace of circles can be observed. Such trees are easily 
recognized by their appearance, as they are almost inva- 
riably destitute of branches, bearing merely a tuft of large 



EEMAKKS. 227 

leaves on the top of the trunk. Of this kind of growth 
the various palm trees are well known examples. 

Leaves are the flat, green, expanded bodies grov/ing on 
the branches. Each leaf consists of a framework of veins, 
which is sometimes netted, as in most of the ordinary leaves 
of this country, and sometimes perfectly parallel, as in our 
grasses and grains, and in 'all the trees of the palm tribe ; 
between the veins is the pulp, having numerous air cavities 
passmg through it in every direction ; the whole is covered 
with a skin, extending over both surfaces of the leaf, that 
on the under surface being pierced with innumerable 
breathing pores. 

The action of the different parts in the living vegetable 
may be thus briefly described. The roots, by their ex- 
treme points, absorb from" the soil water containing cer- 
tain mineral and other substances ; this rises through the 
sap wood, and is conveyed by the branches into the leaves; 
there it is exposed freely to the action of the sun and air. 
and a large portion of the water escapes by evaporation 
the remainder is, by the influence of the air entering 
through the breathing pores, converted into the nourish- 
ment required for the support of the plant and for the 
formation of its peculiar products and secretions. 

Such portion of the sap as is not required for the 
growth of the flowers and fruit descends by the bark, and, 
passing inward by the medullary rays, is stored up in the 
heart wood, or, as in the case of biennials during their first 
year's growth, descends to the fleshy root, there to be 
stored up as nutriment for use during the next season, as 
in the case of the carrot and parsnip. 



228 FIFTH STEP. — VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 

When any peculiar substance . of a medicinal or other 
marked character is produced by a plant, it is obvious that 
we may, in many cases, be so guided by a knowledge of 
these facts, as to obtain it in the greatest quantity. Thus, 
when the sap is first absorbed by the roots, it is thin and 
watery, not possessing any decided properties. The same 
remark applies to it as it exists in the sap wood, but in its 
altered state in the leaves it possesses marked and decided 
properties ; hence leaves are frequently employed for me- 
dicinal or other purposes, as in the case of tea, and of the 
sweet herbs used in cookery ; as the altered sap descends 
by the bark, that part becomes charged with the peculiar 
substances wi:iich the plant has the power of forming ; and 
thus bark is very frequently employed in the arts, and 
also in medicine. Oak and other barks used in tanning, 
and cinnamon employed as a spice, may be taken as ex- 
amples. 

Should the wood itself be required for the sake of any 
substances contained in it, the heart wood filled with the 
altered sap is much more valuable than the sap w^ood.. 

The root, also, as in the case of jalap, rhubarb, chicory, 
&c,, &c., is often charged with the peculiar principles of the 
plant producing it. 

The flowers consist of several parts, each distinct in its 
structure and use ; the outer part, usually green in color, 
which encloses all the others in the flower bud, is termed 
the calyx or flower cup ; it usually consists of several leaf- 
like parts more or less united at the edges; these are 
termed sepals. 

The more highly-colored and ornamental part of the 



COEK. 229 

• 

flower is termed the corolla ; this also consists of several 
leaf-like parts, which are termed petals. 

The corolla sm-rounds the stamens, which are small 
bodies, exceedingly variable in number, consisting of an 
elongated stalk or filament crowned by an enlarged head 
or anther. 

The seed vessel, containing, as its name implies, the 
young seeds, and protecting them until they have arrived 
at maturity, is the most important part of the flower ; it 
is variously situated, being in some, as the apple and cu- 
cumber, below the flower, and in others, as the cherry, 
within it. 

Seeds of various plants — as grains, pulse, spices, &c. — 
are largely made use of by man for food and other pur- 
poses ; as they contain, stored up in small space, a quantity 
of very nutritious matter for the support of the young 
plant during the, first stages of growth, before it has 
formed roots and leaves, so as to obtain its own nourish- 
ment from the earth and air. 

OBJECTS DERIVED FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 

Barh and Stems. 

LESSOR VII. 

• CORK. 

Natural History . — Cork is the bark of a small ever- 
green oak which grows abundantly in Spain, Portugal, the 
south of France, and north of Africa. When the tree is 
from fifteen to twenty years' old, a circular cut is made 



230 FIFTH STEP. LESSON VII. 

around the trunk immediately below the branches, and an- 
other at the surface of the ground ; several perpendicular 
incisions are then made from one to the other, and the 
cork removed by inserting a blunt instrument underneath 
it, care being taken not to injure the inner bark, which 
would cause the death of the tree. The operation is per- 
formed in July or August, and is repeated every eight or 
ten years during the whole life of the tree, usually about 
150 years. 

The cork, when removed, is slightly charred or 
scorched; this improves it by closing the pores, and en- 
ables it more easily to be flattened by pressure, at the 
same time giving it the dark color and burnt odor by 
which it is distincjuished. 

Uses. — The qualities that render cork so valuable are : 
its lightness, its being compressible, elastic, and impervious 
to liquids ; its lightness renders it valuable in constructing 
lifeboats, cork jackets, floats for fishing nets, and other j^ur- 
poses ; its being compressible, elastic, and impervious, ren- 
ders it fitted for closing the mouths of bottles, as, when 
firmly forced in, its elasticity causes it to press so closely 
against all parts of the mouth as to prevent the contents 
from escaping, or the air from gaining access. 

Cork is also occasionally used in thin layers to form the 
inner soles of shoes and boots ; it is cut into the required 
shape f©r the various purposes *for which it is used by 
means of broad knives, which require constant sharpening. 
Bungs for casks are so cut that their flat sides correspond 
to the two sides of the cork, while bottle corks are cut in 
the oj)posite direction ; the latter are consequently much 



CANES. 231 

less porous in the direction of their length, and afford a 
more secure fastening. 

LESSON yni. 

CANES. 

Natural ITlstori/.—Cmes, or rattans, are the long, 
slender stems of a species of palm which grows wild in the 
forests of the East Indies, the Malay peninsula, and the ad- 
jacent islands ; the plants are remarkable for the extraor- 
dinary length of their stems, which occasionally reach 
several hundred feet ; they are abundantly furnished with 
hooked prickles, by means of which they are supported on 
the tops of the highest trees. 

The stems are cut by the natives, and stripped of their 
leaves, which surround them like a sheath, by being pulled 
through a notch cut in a tree ; they are then dried in the 
sun, and tied up in bundles for exportation. 

Uses.— Canes consist chiefly of tough woody fibres, 
with a number of open tubes to allow the ascent of the 
sap with sufficient rapidity to supply the great evaporation 
that takes place from the leaves ; on the outside they are 
covered with a transparent flinty coating of extreme hard- 
ness ; canes split readily in the direction of their length, 
and are used for forming the open lattice work of the seats 
of chairs, and similar purposes, for which they are well 
adapted by the toughness and strength of the fibres, and 
the hardness of the external covering. Those are es- 
teemed the best which are pale in color, very long, thin, 
and sufficiently flexible to bend without cracking the 
glazing. 



232 FIFTH STEP. LESSON IX. ' 

In addition to these uses, the plant yields an edible 
fruit, and when cut across, a flow of wholesome, refreshing 
sap takes place from the end of the stem ; the young 
shoots also furnish, when cooked, a pleasant and delicate 
article of food. 

Within the last few years, canes have been much more 
largely imported than formerly, and they are now em- 
ployed for coarse basket work which is exposed to great 
violence ; for this their great strength renders them valu- 
able. The large baskets used by grocers, bakers, and 
other trades, for heavy goods, arc now also frequently 
made of unsplit canes. 

LESSON IX. 

CIIAECOAL. 

Preparation. — The term coal, or cole, was originally 
applied to wood or any substance used for fuel ; hence half 
burned or charred wood received its name of charcoal. 
Charcoal is prepared by setting fire to a heap of small 
wood, almost entirely covered with a layer of earth, and 
when the whole is ignited closing the openings by which 
air has been allowed to enter, the fire is thus put out and 
the wood remains in a charred state. The best charcoal 
is made from hard wood. 

Properties. — ^Wood charcoal is a light black porous 
solid ; showing distinctly the annual rings and structure of 
the wood from which it was formed ; it is brittle and easily 
reduced to a coarse powder, the small particles of which it 
is composed being exceedingly hard. It is perfectly un- 



CHARCOAL. 233 

changeable in air, insoluble in water or in the strongest 
acids, and also infusible in the fire. Heated to redness 
in the air, it burns away without smoke, producing an in- 
visible but fatally poisonous gas termed carbonic acid. It 
is so bad a conductor of heat, that a piece may be held 
in the fingers within a quarter of an inch of the red hot 
part. 

Uses. — Charcoal is remarkably distinguished by its 
power of absorbing gases to the extent of many times its 
bulk ; hence it is frequently employed to remove any un« 
pleasant odors arising from putrefying animal substances, 
which it does by absorbing them. The chief use of char- 
coal is as fuel ; it is much more largely employed for this 
purpose in cities than in the country ; it is also extensively 
used in the manufacture of gunpowder, that prepared from 
the black alder being usually selected. Its power of ab- 
sorbing odor leads to its use in correcting the smell of 
tainted meat ; and it is sometimes spread upon over-croAvd- 
ed churchyards with the same view. Powdered peat char- 
coal is also used in. some European countries to absorb the 
smell of offensive manures previous to their being spread 
upon the soil ; and water is frequently purified by filtering 
through a layer of powdered charcoal. It is also used for 
polishing hard substances, for making crayons, and in med- 
icine. Animal charcoal, which is prepared by heating 
bones to redness in close iron vessels, is largely used in the 
sugar refineries, as when syrup made from raw or brown 
sugar is filtered through a layer of it, the coloring matter 
is absorbed by the ch^rcaal, and the syrup becomes color- 
less. {See Sugar.) 



234 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON IX. 

GRAIN^ AND PULSE. 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

Description. — The plants yielding grain are annuals ; 
the whole plant, including the root, dying when the seed is 
ripe; their stems, which are termed straw or culm, are 
hollow, and divided into lengths by partitions across the 
interior, corresponding with knots or swellings on the out- 
side ; this structure is evidently intended to strengthen the 
hollow stalk ; this stem is covered externally with a sili- 
ceous or flinty varnish, which gives a peculiar harshness to 
the straw. The leaves arise from the knots, alternately on 
opposite sides of the stem ; each leaf has a broad, flat stalk, 
which is rolled around the stem, so as to form a sheath, 
split up on one side ; the blades of the leaves are long, and 
tapering to a point ; their veins run straight, and parallel 
with each other, from the base to the point, not branching 
out and reuniting, as is common with most leaves ; the last 
leaf of the stalk forms a sheath, which is securely and 
closely rolled around the young heads or ears of grain. 

The blossoms of the grain plants are formed of small 
scales, which are at first green, but become yellow when 
ripe ; they enclose a one-seeded fruit termed a grain ; the 
blossoms are usually arranged in close heads, termed ears 
or spikes ; grains and grasses belong to the same tribe of 
plants, difibring only in respect to size ; the seeds of all 
grasses might be used for food if they were large enough 
to answer the purpose, as no grass plant, except the com- 
mon darnel, is unwholesome when in a healthy state. The 



BAKLEY AND MALT. 235 

grains contain a very large proportion of starch (see 
/Starch), a considerable quantity of a very strengthening 
food known as gluten, a variable amount of oil or fat, and 
small quantities of sugar, gum, fibre, and other substances. 

The native country of the common grains is miknown ; 
with the exception of barley, which is indigenous in Sicily 
and the interior of Asia, they are not found anywhere in a 
wild state ; but are probably grasses which have been in- 
creased in size and value by cultivation ; when allowed to 
grow wild, they soon degenerate and cease to bear seed 
sufficiently large to be available for the food of man. 

LESSON" X. 

BARLEY AND MALT. 

Cultivation. — Barley, next to wheat, is one of the most 
important grains cultivated in this country. Like most of 
the grains, its native country is unknown, and, if allowed 
to grow W'ild, it rapidly degenerates. 

Two distinct kinds are cultivated — winter barley and 
spring barley. 

Barley is a very hardy grain, capable of resisting both 
heat and drought, and may therefore be more profitably 
grown upon poorer soils than wheat ; it comes quickly to 
maturity, and ripens perfectly in short northern summers, 
which are not long enough to admit the ripening of wheat ; 
it is the latest sown and the earliest reaped of all our sum- 
mer grains ; in warm countries two harvests of barley are 
reaped each year — one from the winter, the second from 
the spring sowm. This fact explains the passage in Exodus 



236 FIFTH STEP. LESSON X. 

ix, 31, where the plague of hail is mentioned : — " The flax 
and the barley were smitten, for the barley was in the 
ear ; " " but the wheat and the rye were not smitten, for 
they were not grown up." This plague happened in 
March ; the liist crop of barley was, therefore, nearly ripe, 
having been sown the previous autumn. 

In this country barley is usually sown from the middle 
of April to the middle of May, although the time varies 
somewhat in different localities, and is sown broadcast by 
hand, or with the drilling machine. It thrives best in dry 
seasons ; if there is much rain it becomes sickly, and in 
very wet seasons each grain will sprout in the ear, and the 
whole is rendered worthless. 

Winter barley, as its name implies, remains in the 
ground during that season, and is usually sown in October. 

The quantity of barley produced on an acre of land is, 
on an average, from twenty-five to thirty-five bushels. 

Each grain of barley ends in a long awn or beard, 
which is broken off in threshing ;* the shape of a grain is 
doubly conical, being pointed at the ends, and there is a 
groove on one side ; from its tolerably uniform length, it 
has given its name to one of our divisions of the inch, 
namely, one-third, it being reckoned that three barley 
corns placed end to end make one inch in length. 

Uses. — ^The great use of barley is to make malt for 
brewing beer and distilling spirits. The malting of barley 
is performed by steeping it in water until it has become 
soft and swollen ; it is then taken out and allowed to drain, 
and remain in heaps for about forty hours, during which 
time each grain begins to grow or germinate, sending out 



BYE. 237 

a small root, as it would if planted in moist earth ; to check 
this growth, the barley is spread out to dry on floors, and 
afterward heated in a kiln ; the color of the malt varies 
with the heat at which it is dried ; the darker kinds are 
used for brewing porter, and the lighter for ale. After 
having been kiln dried, the root is broken off by stirring 
the malt with spades, and, when separated by sifting, 
forms the substance known as malt dust or malt culm, 
which is used for sheep feeding, and sometimes as manure. 

During malting, barley undergoes the changes that 
happen to all seeds during germination ; the starch matter 
is converted into sugar, which is capable of being dissolved 
in the juices of the growing plant and nourishing it; hence 
the taste of malt is sweet, and it is the sugar which, dis- 
solved by boiling water, changes during fermentation into 
the spirituous part of the beer. 

Barley does not form a palatable bread when ground 
into flour, as it is coarse, dry, and apt to become sour. It is 
sometimes used for food, especially by invalids, in the form 
of pearl barley ; this is formed by grinding off the outer 
husks in mills adapted for that purpose. 

It is used as food for poultry, and, when ground into 
meal, for fattening pigs, turkeys, and other animals. 

Barley straw is of considerable value as fodder for 
cattle and horses. 

LESSON XL 

EYE. 

Cultivation. — ^Rye is a grain capable of growing on 
lighter and poorer soils, and in colder latitudes than the 



238 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XI. 

other varieties of grain. It is, therefore, the j^revailing 
grain in a portion of Siberia, the North American Russian 
possessions, the northern part of the New England States, 
and the north of Europe. It requires less care in the pre- 
paration of the ground, and a less amount of manure than 
is given to either wheat or barley ; but the value of the 
produce is proportionably small. Rye is usually sown in 
the autumn after a crop of wheat, although the nature of 
the previous croj) is not of great importance. It is sup- 
posed to be a native of the desert countries round the 
Caspian Sea. 

Uses, — Rye is cultivated for several distinct purposes. 
The rij^e grain, ground into meal, is largely used by the 
poorer class of people in Russia, and other parts of the 
Continent, for making a coarse, heavy kind of bread, which 
is very dark in color, and iirjpalatable. In Holland the 
rii^e grain is fermented, and a distilled spirit obtained 
from the liquid. Rye straw forms the best material for 
thatching, and is much used for making straw plait for 
hats and bonnets. 

In this country, rye is not largely used for food, and but 
a limited amount of it is raised. 

It is only on the poorer and more barren soils that it is 
cultivated for the sake of the grain ; but in some situations 
near poultry yards a belt of it is sown around fields of 
other grains, to protect them from fowls, as they do 
not relish rye as food. One circumstance that ren- 
ders rye less desirable as food for man, is the occa- 
sional occurrence of a disease in the grain, rendering it 
extremely unwholesome ; in this affection, the 2:rains en- 



OATS. ^^^ 



larae very oonslderaWy, and become some^Yllat like the 
curved spur of a cock; hence the name spurred rye, or er- 
got of rye. From this diseased grain a very useful medi- 
cine (secale cornutum) is extracted. 



LESSON xn. 

OATS. 



Cultivation.-1\^^ native country of oats is not known 
^ith any degree of certainty. The plant flourishes m 
colder climates and seasons than any other gram, and is 
therefore largely cultivated in high mountainous countries 
as Scotland, Norway, and Sweden. In appearance it dif- . 
fers strikingly from the other grains, the flowers being ar- 
rancred in loose bunches, so that each hangs with the open 
par^of the husk toward the earth, an arrangement which 
prevents the access of wet to the grain. 

Several varieties are known in this country, such as the 

white, red, black, &c. ■ 

Oats are usually sown in April or May, bemg scattered 
broadcast by hand, at the rate of from four to six bushe s 
an- acre, and the average produce is from thirty to fifty 

bushels. , 

XTses -O^i^ form an exceedingly wholesome and, at 
the same time, very nutritious article of food; wlien kiln 
dried and ground into coarse meal, they form the food ot 
a very large proportion of the people of Scotland and the 
north of England, being used both in the form of oaten 

cakes and porridge. , , ,. „,„ 

When the seeds are deprived of the husks they are 



240 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XIII. 

called oat grits, and form a very palatable and nutritious 
food for the sick. Except in this form, it is but little used 
for food in the United States. 

The great consumption of oats, however, is as food for 
horses ; for this purpose they are emjoloyed both whole and 
ground ; they are also used for feeding geese, ducks, and 
other poultry, &c. 

The ripe straw of the oat is regarded as more nutri- 
tious than any other, and is preferred as fodder for cat- 
tle ; and the chaff or husk of the grain is often used for 
stuffing mattresses among the Scotch peasantry, as it is 
soft, elastic, and inexpensive. 

LESSON XIII. 

EICE. 

Cultivation. — The native country of rice is undoubted- 
ly Asia, in the warmer parts of which it is even now found 
growing wild, and the seeds collected for food ; from Asia 
it has been carried by man, and spread over the warmer 
and more marshy parts of Europe, America, and Africa ; 
its introduction into America has taken place within ^he 
last one hundred and fifty years. 

The great peculiarity in the cultivation of rice is the 
quantity of moisture it requires. In this country, for ex- 
ample, it is sown in the spring, in rows or trenches eighteen 
inches apart, and the ground is flooded with water for sev- 
eral days ; when the plants are four inches high, the flood- 
ing is repeated, and continued for a fortnight ; and again 
a third time, shortly before the grain ripens, the fields are 



KICE. 



241 



inundated, and remain so until tlie rice is ripe. From tlie 
swampy state of the soil in rice-growing districts, the cul- 
tivation of rice is a most imhealthy occupation, and in this 
,country it is left almost entirely to the care of negro 
slaves. On the grain becoming ripe, the water is drained 
off, and the reaping performed with a sickle, the laborej 
sinking deeply in the soft ground in which the plant 

grow. 

Rice is cultivated in very much the same manner in 
Italy, Lombardy, and Spain, and to^an immense extent in 
India, China, and Ceylon. In all countries the best rice 
fields are the low swampy grounds through which the 
large rivers run ; in other situations the waters of the 
small streams are collected in reservoirs, and used for irri- 
gating the grounds. 

In fertility rice much exceeds our common grains ; in 
India two crops a year, of thirty to sixty bushels each, are 
the ordinary produce of an acre. In Lombardy, three 
bushels of seed are sown to an acre, and the usual return 
is fifty bushels. 

It is often shipped in the state of rough rice, that is, 
with the hulls on, as it is thus more easily protected from 
damage in transportation. Its preparation is completed in 
mills made for this purpose, both in this country md in 

Europe. 

Rice, although not spoken of by name in the Holy 
Scriptures, must have been well known to the sacred histo- 
rians ; it is probable that its cultivation is alluded to m 
Eccles. xi, 1, and Isaiah xxxii, 20. 

Uses.— Rice forms the chief food of a greater number 
11 



1^ 



■f*, 




n 



242 FITTH STEP. — LESSON XIV. 

of persons than any other substance ; the people of India, 
Chhia, and part of America, live chiefly upon it ; with a 
mixture of spices termed curry, it forms almost the entire 
food of whole races of men in India ; and it is estimated 
that it sujDports upward of one hundred millions of people. 

As a diet it is light, wholesome, and readily digested ; 
ut, from consisting almost entirely of starch, it is not so 
nutritious as the other grains; it is used with more advan- 
tage as a partial article of food than alone ; in the latter 
case the quantity necessarily eaten is very large. 

In India a species of strong spirit termed arrack is dis- 
tilled from fermented rice, and the straw is also used for 
making plait for bonnets. Large quantities of rice are used 
in England in the manufacture of starch. 

LESSON" XIV. 

INDIAN COKN OR MAIZE. 

Cultivatio7i, dbc. — ^The native place of maize is undoubt- 
edly America, where it was found growing both wild and 
cultivated by the Spanish discoverers of the New World. 
In appearance the Indian corn differs much from other 
grains; the stalk is strong, jointed, and reedy, growing 
from^even to ten feet in height, and covered with broad 
alternate leaves ; the top of the stem bears a bunch of 
barren flowers, termed the tassel; and lower down are the 
ears, generally about three in number, each enclosed in a 
sheath formed of several thin leaves ; the ears consist of a 
pithy, cylindrical stem, called the cob, on which are closely 
arranged the rows of seeds ; from each seed j^roceeds a 



INDIAN COKN OR MAIZE. 243 

long silky filament, -which issues from the sheath at the top 
of the ear ; after a time both the tassel of barren flowers, 
which forms a fertilizing powder necessary for the protec- 
tion of the grain, and the silken filaments which receive it 
as it falls, dry up and drop oflT. 

The color of Indian corn varies from a rich golden yel- 
low, or even white, to a deep red chocolate color. 
• The cultivation of maize is very simplp. The grains are 
planted in rows about three feet apart, care being taken 
that the season is so far advanced that the young plants 
shall not be destroyed by the frost. The return varies 
greatly, according to the quantity of manure used, and the 
nature of the ground, but it is always very great, in some 
instances even several hundred fold. 

Uses, — ^Indian corn forms the staple article of food in 
many parts of the United States, and among all classes of 
persons in Mexico ; in Africa, where it has been intro- 
duced and is largely cultivated, it is said to be as much 
used as rice. 

In those warm countries where it grows to perfection, 
it is the most profitable grain that can be cultivated, its 
produce being so much greater than that of any other 
grain ; it forms, in consequence, a cheap, and, at the same 
time, exceedingly wholesome article of diet. It contains a 
larger proportion of fat or oil than any other grain, and 
is, therefore, possessed of remarkable fattening properties. 

From consisting in great part of starch, Indian corn 
flour is not well adaj^ted for making bread, unless mixed 
with wheat flour ; it is most frequently used in the form of 
thick porridge, puddings, and cakes. 



244 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XV. 

Corn is used extensively in the United States in the 
manufacture of starch. The largest manufactories are at 
Oswego, IST. Y., and Glen Cove, Long Island. At the for- 
mer place more than 200,000 bushels of corn are made into 
starch annually, which is used both in cooking and by the 
laundftss 

LESSOISr XV. 

WHEAT. 

Cultivation^ €S)C. — ^The native country of wheat is not 
known with any degree of certainty ; it has in fact been 
so changed by cultivation that it is unknown in its natural 
state ; in Europe, where it has been long cultivated, many 
varieties exist, the most important being the spring or 
summer, and the winter or lammas w^heat. Spring wheat, 
so termed from its being sown at that season, has a more 
slender head than the winter kind; it is also awned or 
bearded ; the grain itself is smaller, and the whole plant 
more delicate and less productive ; it is, therefore, less 
cultivated. 

Winter wheat is a vigorous and hardy plant. The ear 
is destitute of any awn or beard. Two distinct kinds of it 
exist, which are distinguished by the names red and white 
wheat. The latter is more delicate in its growth, and is 
better suited to lighter lands than the red. It is preferred 
for producing fine flour, and consequently sells at higher 
rates. The red wheat, on the contrary, is hardy, and bet- 
ter adapted to the cold, strong clay soils. Winter wheat 
is sown in the autumn, usually in September or October, 



WHEAT. 245 

the young plants standing during the winter, and ripening 
their seeds the following autumn. 

The sowing is either broadcast by hand, or performed 
with the drill or sowing machine ; the latter causes a much 
more advantageous arrangement of th^ seed in furrows. 
Wheat tillers freely ; that is, each seed produces several 
stalks, the usual number being about five or six. 
, The produce of wheat is, on the average, about twenty- 
six bushels an acre ; but in districts wdiere manure is abun- 
dant and agriculture carried to a high state of perfection, 
much larger quantities are obtained ; forty bushels to the 
acre are not unfrequent. From the United States and 
Canada large quantities of flour are annually exported to 
Europe. 

Wheat is subject to a disease called smut, which may 
be described as a sort of black mildew, affecting the ripen- 
ii% grain. A few diseased grains will contaminate a large 
quantity of seed, and the plants produced from such seed 
will be affected ; fortunately this disease may be almost en- 
tirely destroyed, even w^hen largely present in seed wheat, 
by steeping it in various solutions, as, for example, strong 
brine, or, what is still more eflectual, a solution of sulphate 
of copper, or blue vitriol ; or a weak solution of arsenic. 

Uses. — Wheat furnishes, when ground, one of the most 
nutritious and valuable of all kinds of flour ; in temperate 
countries, where the poverty of the inhabitants does not 
preclude its use, it forms the chief article of food. From 
the tough character of the dough (obtained by mixing 
wheat flour wdth water) it forms a more spongy, and, 
therefore, lighter kind of bread than any other flour. 



246 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XVI. 

^ LESSOISr XVI. 

PULSE. 

The term pulse is applied to the seeds of plants resem- 
bling more or le^is in their structure the common pea; 
they are characterized by highly developed and ornamental 
flowers, the corolla consisting of petals which are irregular 
in form, and which, in some species, as the sweet pea, so 
much resemble a butterfly, that they have been termed 
butterfly-shaj)ed, or papilionaceous, a term which is applied 
to the flowers of the whole group. 

The ripened seed vessel is also very peculiar in these 
plants. It consists of two halves, or valves, usually convex 
externally and concave internally; these separate when 
ripe, and disclose a row of seeds attached to each valve.- 
Such seed vessels are popularly termed pods, and are 
known to botanists as legumes ; hence the plants bearing 
them are frequently termed leguminous plants. In this 
country peas and beans form the most frequently used 
leguminous seeds. 

It should be remembered that all leguminous seeds are 
not wholesome ; those of the Laburnum tree, for example, 
often give rise to serious illness when eaten by children, 

lesso:n' xyii. 

BEANS. 

Natural History. — Beans are the produce of a plant 
which originally came from the East, but which is now ex- 
tensively cultivated in all the temperate parts of the world. 



n 



BEA^^^S. 247 

The j)lant is an annual, from two to four feet in height ; 
the leaves are divided into leaflets ; and the flowers, which wM 
are of that kind termed butterfly-shaped, are white, with a 
black spot on the centre of each wing, and exceedingly^^^ 
fragrant; each flower is succeeded by. a broad thick pod, 
smooth externally and woolly internally, containing several 
seeds. 

Beans require a heavy clay soil, and are planted in hills 
or sown in drills, either with a hoe or with a ^jpiilling ma- 
chine. The crops are ready to be gathered in the autum^^ 
The formation and growth of a bean may be v^l^^y exam-€> 
ined if it is soaked in water for a few hours. It will be 
found to consist of a thick outer skin or covering, inclosing 
two parts, joined together by a small curved, doubly point- 
ed portion ; the two halves are the seed lobes, or leaves ; 
these contain the nourishment for the young plant, and, 
rising above the surface of the ground, form its first 
leaves ; the connecting parts consist of the young ^em 
and roo^ ; the uses of the diflerent parts may be readily 
ascertained by moistening a few beans and examining them 
from day to day. 

Z/hes. — Beans constitute a very hearty food, ^nd the 
better sort are much used for the table. They are exten- 
sively used for rations in the army, and as ship stores. » 
In England they are employed as food for hard-working 
horses, for which purpose they are usually crushed and 
mixed with cut hay, straw, byan, oats, or other food ; they 
* are also used m fattening pigs, but are regarded as making 
the flesh hard and tough; bean meal is also sometimes 
mixed with the flour of new wheat for making bread. 



4 




248 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON XVIII. 



LEssoN^ xvm. 

PEAS. 



Natural History. — The plant yielding the common p^a 
a native of the south of Europe, but it is now cultivated 
in all temperate climates. It is a climber, with compound 
divided leaves, the main stalks of which proceed beyond 
the last i^aifcof leaflets, and form the spirally twisted ten- 

^mls, by means of which the plant clings for support to 
♦other obje^te. Few circumstances show more evidently 
the deeicrn and wisdom of the Creator than the numberless 
instances of compensation. Animals, for instance, denied 
the possession of some one sense, are compensated for it 
by the great perfection of another, which answers their 
wants more perfectly; or, as in the present case, a plant 
'destitute of the power to raise its leaves and flowers from 
the ground, and expose them to the genial influences of the 
sun and air, is compensated for its weakness by a contri- 
vance which enables it to borrow the needful support from 
other plants. 

Thelftowers of the pea consist of five dissimilar petals, 
forming that kind of flower termed butterfly-shaped, or 

•papilionaceous, which is only found in the plants of the pea 
tribe. Each flower is followed by a pod, which divides 
when ripe" into two parts, both of which bear a row of 
seeds, or peas. Each pea consists of an outer skin, inclos- 
mg two hfilf globular seed lobes, connected together as in 
the bean, the description of which may be referred to as 
applicable to the various parts of the pea. Cultivation has 



FOREIGN CUEEANTS. 249 

produced many varieties of this vegetable ; some are re- 
markable for ripening earlier than others ; some for their 
peculiar form, size, or color. The common field pea re- 
quires a rich, strong soil, but the garden varieties succeed 
better 6n dry, light lands. 

Uses. — The garden pea is highly valued for the table, 
when gathered in its green state, and when ripe, dried, and 
separated from the skins, w^e obtain from them the well 
known split peas, and pea flour, so much used for making 
puddings and soup. In this form they furnish an exceed- 
ingly nutritious and wholesome, but, to some persons, not 
always an easily digested article of food. 

The common pea is largely used in feeding pigs ; it is 
grown as an agricultural crop, being sown either broadcast 
or in drills ; in either case, it spreads over the ground, and 
for the purpose of support a few beans are sometimes 
sown with it. The dry haulm or straw of the pea is ver.y 
valuable as food for horses and cattle. 



bruits and Seeds, 
LESSOI^ XIX. 

FOEEIGN CUEEANTS. 

The foreign, or dried currants, are a species of small 
raisins or grapes, which chiefly grow in the Grecian Islands. 
They were formerly very abundant in the Isthmus of Co- 
rinth, and were called from thence Corinthians ; this term 
has been corrupted into currants, probably from their re- 
semblance to the English fruit of that name. These little 
11* 



260 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XX. 

grapes have no stones, and are of a reddish black color ; 
they are extremely delicious when fresh gathered. The 
harvest commences in August, and as soon as the grapes 
are gathered they are spread to dry on a floor, prepared 
for the purpose by stamping the earth quite hard. This 
floor is formed with a gentle rising in the middle, that the 
rain, in case any should fall, may flow off and not injure the 
fruit. When sufiiciently dry, the currants are cleaned, and 
laid up in magazines, where they are so closely pressed to- 
gether that, when a supply is needed, it is dug out with an 
iron instrument. 

They are packed in large casks for exj^ortation, and 
trodden down by the natives. 

LESSON" XX. 

THE COCOANUT. ^.^ 

The tree which produces this fruit is a kind of palm, 
which is found in Brazil, Ceylon, and throughout the East 
Indies ; its trunk resembles a stately column, crowned at 
the summit with narrow leaves, fourteen or fifteen feet in 
length, and only three in breadth ; amidst these, hangs the 
fruit. The external rind of the cocoanut is thm, brown, 

smooth, and approaches a triangular form. This covering en- 
closes an extremely fibrous substance, of considerable thick- 
ness, which immediately surrounds the nut ; the latter has 
a thick .and hard shell, with three holes at the base, each 
closed by a black membrane. The kernel, which is about 
an inch in thickness, lines the shell and encloses a sweet, 
refreshing liquid- The cocoanut tree affords the Indians 



EAISINS. 251 

food, clothing, and means of shelter. Before the kernel 
comes to maturity, it is soft and pulpy, may be scraped out 
with a spoon, and supphes the natives with an agreeable 
and nutritious food ; when pressed in a mill, it yields an 
oil. By making incisions in the flower-buds at the top of 
the tree, the sap flows out, and is esteemed an agreeable 
and cooling drink ; it is sold in the bazaars under the name 
of toddy. If allowed to stand a few hours it ferments, be- 
comes extremely intoxicating, and is called palm wine. By 
soaking the fibrous trunk in water it is made soft, and can 
be manufactured into sail cloth, or twisted into cordage of 
any description, Avhich surpasses in durability that formed 
of hemp. The woody shells are very hard, and susceptible 
of a high polish ; they are used for cups, ladles, and other 
domestic utensils. The trunk of the tree furnishes either 
beams or rafters for habitations, or is made into boats. 
The leaves i3latted together form an excellent thatch ; they 
are also used for umbrellas, mats, and various other useful 
articles. 

LESSON XXL 

EAISINS. 

Natural History. — Raisins, or dried grapes, are the 
produce of the vine — a plant which, although now cultiva- 
ted in all the warm parts of the globe, was originally a na- 
tive of the south of Asia, from whence it has been carried 
into Europe, Africa, and America. The early cultivation 
of this plant is mentioned in Genesis ix, 20 ; and the large 
size of the fruit produced in the genial climate of Palestine 
is as remarkable now as in the time of Moses. 



m 



252 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XXII. 

In this country the fruit of the vine does not arrive at 
a sufficient degree of perfection to make wine, without the 
addition of sugar ; nor is the warmth of the sun powerful 
enough to dry raisins ; we are, therefore, dependent upon 
other countries for our supply. 

In Valencia, from whence our great supply is obtained, 
the raisins are prepared by dipping the bunches of grapes 
into a hot lye made of wood ashes, oil, and lime ; they are 
then exposed on frames of basket-work for fourteen or fif- 
teen days, to be dried by the heat of the sun. 

Muscatel raisins are dried on the vines without being 
dipped; hence the diiferent appearance and flavor. The 
effect of the lye is to soften the skin of the fruit, rendering 
it less tough, but it somewhat injures the flavor. Valencia 
raisins are employed in pastry, the Muscatels for eating 
uncooked. 

Sultana raisins are a smaller variety from Smyrna, 

without seeds. A peculiar mildew has attacked almost 

all the varieties of the grapevine during the last few 

ears ; the quantity of raisins has been lessened, and the 

:ice correspondingly increased. 



LESSON' XXII. 

FIGS. 



ifd^iiral History, — Figs are produced on a small tree, 
originally a native of the southwest of Asia, but now culti- 
ed extensively in all the countries of the south of Eu- 
e ; in height it seldom reaches above twenty feet, and 
bears large, deeply-lobed leaves, very rough on the upper 




FIGS. 253 

surface, and downy beneath ; it is not furnished with any 
visible flowers, the fruit arising from the stem in the form 
of small pear-shaped buds, which are pierced at the larger 
end with a small hole ; these buds enlarge in size* until 
they become ripe, still retaining their original shape. 
Each one contains a cavity, lined with numerous small, 
scale-like bodies ; these are the flowers enclosed within the 
fruit. The structure cannot be seen in the dried fig, the 
cavity having been closed np by pressure, and the internal 
flowers ripened into the seeds. In its unripe state, the fig- 
abounds with a bitter milky juice— this, as it ripens, be- 
comes changed into sugar. 

One of the most remarkable circumstances connected 
with the fig is the fact of its bearing two, or even three, 
crops of fruit during the year ; this peculiarity, and the 
extreme value of it as an article of food, are alluded to 
frequently in the Old Testament, — "I found Israel like 
grapes in the wilderness ; I saw your fathers as the first- 
ripe in the fig tree at her first time." — (Hosea ix, 10). 

The first crop is formed on the old wood, and is ripe in 
May and June ; the second grows on wood of the same 
year, and is ripe in September; and in very warm cli- 
mates, as Greece and Egypt, a third crop is produced, 
which ripens after the leaves are shed, thus supj)lying the 
inhabitants with fresh fruit during the greater part of the 
year. 

Those intended for exportation are not gathered until 
perfectly ripe ; they are dried on frames, which are placed 
in the sun by day, and under cover at night ; in very wet 
seasons they are partially dried by stoves ; when quite dry. 



254 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XXIII. 

they are packed in boxes and baskets for exportation. 
Most of the figs used in this country and Great Britain are 
imported from Turkey. 

Uses. — Figs are a very nutritious and valuable article 
of diet ; in many j)arts of the East they form, with a small 
portion of bread, the chief food of the inhabitants, and 
when abundant are even given in small quantities to an- 
imals, as corn is in this country. The sycamore of Scrip- 
ture is a larger species of fig, the fruit of which is also 
occasionally eaten. 

Vegetable Secretions. 
LESSOI^ XXIII. 

CAMPHOE. 

N'atural History and Preparation. — Camphor exists in 
small quantities in many plants, but is chiefly obtained from 
a sj)ecies of laurel tree, a native of China and Japan, which 
is now cultivated in most of the warm parts of the world ; 
the great supply is obtained from the Island of Formosa, 
and carried in Chinese junks to Canton, whence foreign 
markets are supplied. 

Camphor is obtained by heating in a still the leaves, 
branches, and wood of the tree cut up into small j^iecea; 
being volatile, it rises in vapor ; this is collected in a solid 
form in a cold part of the apparatus. The camphor of com- 
merce is in a dirty, granular state, and is purified by a 
second distillation. The art of refining it was long monop- 
lized by the Venetians, and afterward by the Dutch. It is 
now, however, practised in the United States. 



CAMPHOR. 255 

Properties, — Camphor is a solid, semi-transparent sub- 
stance, so tough that it cannot be powdered without the 
addition of a few drops of spirit or oil; it possesses a 
strong aromatic and very peculiar odor ; it is very sparing- 
ly soluble in water, to which, however, it imparts its pecu- 
liar odor and bitter taste ; in spirit it dissolves readily, the 
camphor separating in the solid form when the solution is 
poured into water. Camphor is also soluble in oil. In 
large doses it acts as a poison, producing convulsions, stu- 
por, and death. 

It melts at a moderate heat, and at the same time pass- 
es off rapidly in vapor ; if brought into actual contact with 
a flame, it takes fire readily, burning with a large flame and 
much smoke. 

Uses. — ^The strong odor of camphor is obnoxious to 
insects and moths ; it is, therefore, emj)loyed to protect 
cabinets of natural history and clothes ; when taken as a 
medicine, its first effect is that of a stimulant, but its action 
afterward becomes depressing ; its strong odor has given 
rise to the idea that it is capable of preventing infection, 
and it is frequently carried about the body with this view ; 
it has not, however, the slightest power of destroying in- 
fection, and, from its depressing effects, its action is deci- 
dedly injurious. 

Dissolved in spirit, it forms a valuable application to 
unbroken chilblains, and also to burns or scalds when the 
skin is not destroyed. 



256 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XXIV. 



LESSON XXIV. 

GUM AEABIC. 

Natural History. — Gum arable is the produce of seve- 
ral kinds of acacia trees, natives of the sandy deserts of 
Africa and the East Indies. 

In the hottest seasons of the year the gum oozes out 
from the bark in a thick mucilage, which hardens on expo- 
sure to the air, in a similar manner to the gum produced 
by the plum and cherry trees of this climate, but to a much 
greater extent. 

When pure, gum arable is transparent and colorless, 
but the commoner kinds are generally yellow. It has a 
glassy lustre, is perfectly inodorous, and has an insipid 
taste. It dissolves readily in water, forming a thick adhe- 
sive solution, which becomes sour after having been made 
some time. 

Uses. — Gum in the form of mucilaoce is much used as a 
cement for small articles, as for fastening labels to glass, 
&c. ; it is also employed extensively in the arts, for stiffen- 
ing crapes and other fabrics, and in the manufacture of ink. 
Paper which has been gummed on one side, and allowed to 
become dry, is readily attached to any object by moisten- 
ing with the tongue or otherwise ; in this manner gum is 
largely employed for postage stamps and envelopes, a por- 
tion of sugar being usually mixed with it, to enable the 
cement to be more rapidly softened by the moisture em- 
ployed. The gum usually employed for this and other 
coarse purposes is termed British gum, or Dextrine, being 



INDIAN RUBBEE. 257 

made by baking starch in a moderate heat imtil it assumes 
a pale brown color, and becomes soluble in cold water. 

LESSON^ XXV. 

INDIAN RUBBER, OR CAOUTCHOUC. 

Natural History. — Indian rubber is produced by seve- 
ral trees, natives of the warmer parts of South America 
and the East Indies ; it is obtained, during the rainy sea- 
son, by making deep incisions in the bark, when a thick, 
creamy juice, of a yellowish white color, flows out, capable 
of bein^ mixed with water ; this remains imchanged if kept 
in closely corked bottles, but dries slowly on exposure to 
the air. 

In South America the natives spread the juice, as it is 
obtained from the tree, on moulds of clay, applying one 
layer as soon as that previously put on is dry ; the drying 
is hastened by placing the moulds over a wood fire, the 
smoke of which colors the Indian rubber. These moulds 
are sometimes in the form of a shoe, and sometimes of a 

bottle. 

When a sufficient number of coats have been applied, 
so as to produce the desired thickness, the clay moulds are 
broken and the pieces withdrawn, leaving the Indian rub- 
ber in the form of the mould ; from the East Indies it is 
usually imported in the form of balls or irregular pieces. 

Properties, — Indian rubber is a soft, pliable, and highly 
elastic substance, tough, and difficult to be cut ; its elas- 
ticity varies, being much lessened by cold and increased by 
a moderate heat; when suddenly stretched it becomes 



258 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON XXV. 

warm — an experiment readily tried by extending a thin 
thong suddenly between the lij^s ; if stretched, and 
placed in cold water for some time, it loses its contrac- 
tile power, which, however, it regains immediately on 
being warmed. 

Indian rubber is insoluble in cold or hot water, but is 
softened by long boiling, and becomes somewhat adhesive ; 
it is also insoluble in spirits or weak acids, but dissolves 
readily, with the aid of heat, in pure ether, spirits of tur- 
pentine, and coal naphtha, remaining unchanged when the 
liquids evaporate ; it is partly dissolved by oil, becoming 
clammy and glutinous. 

Freshly cut, clean surfaces of Indian rubber, readily 
adhere, if pressed together, or they may be united by using 
that which has been dissolved in naphtha or turpentine ; 
heated to a degree rather higher than boiling water, it 
melts, but it is altered in its properties, and does not be- 
come solid on cooling ; if brought into contact with a 
flame, it immediately takes fire, burning with a white 
flame, and giving out a dense smoke and a very peculiar 
odor. In Guiana, where the trees abound, it is frequently 
used for torches. 

Preparation. — Indian rubber is formed into blocks by 
being placed in an iron cylinder, lined with spikes, through 
which passes an iron shaft, also armed with spikes, and 
made to turn round rapidly ; by this operation the Indian 
rubber is torn into small pieces, which, when firmly pressed 
together, unite into a uniform solid block, capable of being 
cut up into thin sheets or threads ; this is accomplished by 
means of wet knives, moved by machinery ; threads of 



INDIAN KUBBEK. 259 

such a degree of fineness are produced, that 5,000 yards 
weigh only one pound. 

Uses. — The elasticity, flexibility, and impervious nature 
of this substance render it of great use in the arts ; the 
natives of the countries where it is produced make water- 
proof articles by spreading the fresh juice on cloth and 
other substances ; in this country it is so used by being 
dissolved in naphtha or turpentine, and then spread upon 
cloth, or apphed between two thin fabrics, which are 
pressed together by rollers. The dissolved Indian rubber 
is also used as a cement in binding books, and for other 
purposes. 

When dissolved with shellac it forms a valuable ce- 
ment, termed marine glue, used in ship-building. 

Advantage is taken of the property of Indian rubber of 
becoming inelastic when cold, in weaving elastic bandages, 
&c. The threads employed for this purpose are stretched 
to seven or eight times their original length, and wound on 
rollers ; they are then kept extended in the cold for two or 
three weeks, by which time they entirely lose their elas- 
ticity; in this state they are woven readily, and when 
passed over a hot roller the Indian rubber resumes its 
elasticity ; these fabrics are employed for many purposes, 
as, glove bands, brace ends, surgical bandages, &c., &c. 

The use of Indian rubber in removing black lead pen- 
cil marks from paper is well known ; its name is derived 
from its being so employed. It is also used, either alone 
or in combination, in the manufacture of boots, shoes, 
travelling bags, life preservers, &g. 

Vulcanized Indian rubber is usually prepared by adding 



260 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXVI. 

a small quantity of sulphur to the rubber as it is prepared 
in the mill ; when the article required is finished, it is heat- 
ed ; the sulphur and heat efiect a very important change ; 
the Indian rubber becomes much more elastic than before, 
and possesses the great advantage of not being stiifened by 
cold, nor softened by the heat of boiling water; it loses 
also its adhesiveness to so great a degree that it cannot be 
made to unite, and the waste pieces are comparatively 
valueless. The red vulcanized Indian rubber is pre23ared 
in a similar manner, a compound of sulphur and antimony 
being employed. The permanently flexible and elastic 
character of vulcanized Indian rubber has led to its ex- 
tensive use for gas tubes, elastic bands, springs, toys, &c., 
&c., &c. By the addition of magnesia to vulcanized rub- 
ber it acquires that degree of hardness which adapts it to 
the manufacture of knife handles, combs, canes, buttons, 
fancy boxes, and many other articles. 

LESSON^ XXVI. 

GUTIA PEECHA. 

Natural History and Preparation. — Gutta percha is 
the product of a tall tree, a native of tlie Malayan Penin- 
sula, and the adjacent islands, which, when wounded, ex- 
udes a milky juice, hardening on exposure to the air. It 
was formerly procured by the natives in a most wasteful 
mo(le, by cutting down the trees and collecting the thick- 
ened sap from between the bark and the wood ; but tap- 
ping has lately been introduced. This sap, as it hardens, is 
kneaded into shapeless masses ; these, when imported into 



GUTTA PEKCHA. 261 

this country, are prepared for use by being cut into 
shreds, cleaned by washing, and caused to unite by 
warmth and pressure. Each tree yields from twenty to 
thirty pounds. 

Properties, — In its prepared state, gutta percha is a 
tough, strong, flexible substance, somewhat resembling 
leather ; it is lighter than water, of a brown color, taste- 
less, and having a peculiar odor ; it is quite insoluble in 
water" spirit, and weak acids, but is dissolved by ether, 
spirits of turpentine, and coal naphtha. It is softened by 
a degree of warmth much less than that of boiling water, 
but greater than that of the human body ; it then becomes 
a plastic mass, capable of being readily moulded into any 
required shape ; it is inflammable, burning with a white 
flame and much smoke; it is quite impervious to water, 
even in thin layers, and is not a conductor of heat or 
electricity. 

Uses. — ^The uses to which this substance has been ap- 
plied depend chiefly on its toughness, insolubility, and the 
ease with which it may be made to assume any form. By 
pressure in moulds it is made into trays, cups, bottles, pic- 
ture frames, inkstands, &c., &c. ; flattened between rollers, 
it forms bands, traces, shoe soles, thin waterproof sheeting, 
&c. ; and it is also formed into pipes for conveying water, 
which, from their toughness, resist great i3ressure ; and for 
speaking tubes, for which purpose it is peculiarly adapted, 
as it possesses in this form an extraordinary power of con- 
ducting sound. From its extreme strength it is also well 
fitted for forming substances submitted to rough usage ; 
it possesses, however, the ^disadvantage of being readily 



262 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XXVII. 

altered in shape by a degree of heat less than that of boil- 
ing water. 

One of its most useful applications depends upon its be- 
ing a non-conductor of electricity ; hence it is employed to 
cover the wires of the submarine electric telegraph. 

LESSON XXVII. 

OILS. 

Fixed or greasy oils are abundantly formed by various 
vegetables, and are of extreme value to man, as food, for 
lighting, soap and candle making, and many other pur- 
poses. 

Oils are seldom, if ever, stored up in the leaves or 
bark, but are usually found in the seed-vessel or seeds; 
in the latter, oils answer the twofold purpose of nourish- 
ing the young plant during its early growth, and of 
affording a supply of food to man and animals. 

The quantity of oil in various seeds is very great. The 
kernel of the hazel nut contains 60 per cent. ; walnut 50 ; 
almond, 46 ; poppy seed, 50 ; raj^e, 39 ; hemp, 25 ; flax, 
22. Many of these seeds when dry, as the almond, take 
fire and burn readily when placed in the flame of a candle. 

The most commonly used vegetable oils are olive, lin- 
seed, palm, and castor oils. 

Olive Oil. Natural History. — The olive is a small 
evergreen tree, common in the south of Europe, Barbary, 
and the Levant ; it has lance-shaped grayish-green leaves, 
and white flowers ; the latter are followed by a fruit tlie 
size and shape of a damson, of a purple color, with a nau- 



OILS. 263 

seous, bitter, oily flesh, wliicli encloses a sliarp-pointed 
stone. 

The oil is obtained from the fruit by crushing it un- 
der rollers into a paste, which is then enclosed in bags and 
subjected to the action of a screw press. That which flows 
first is regarded as the best ; after that has been removed, 
hot water is added to the mass, and an additional quantity 
obtained. 

Properties and Uses. — Olive oil is an insipid, inodorous, 
pale, yellow, oily liquid, not liable to turn rancid, and very 
inflammable ; at a temperature several degrees above the 
freezing point of water it becomes solid. 

In the south of Europe and Syria, of which countries 
the olive is a native, the oil has been in use from the ear- 
liest periods of which we have any record, both for food 
(1 Kings, xvii, 12) and burning in lamps (Exod. xxvii, 20) ; 
at the present time it may be regarded as the cream and 
butter of Spain and Italy, and so much is it valued, that 
the tree is chosen as the emblem of peace and plenty. 

In our own country olive oil is used in the preparation 
of food, though to a much more limited extent than in 
Europe ; the common kinds are largely employed in the 
woollen manufacture, and some kinds of soap. 

Linseed Oil. Natural History. — The description of 
the plant yielding flax and linseed will be found under 
the head of Textile Fabrics ; the seeds, when separated, 
are crushed and pressed in mills, when they yield nearly 
^one fourth of- their weight of oil; this, of all vegetable oils, 
is one of the cheapest and most useful. It possesses the 
property of drying when exposed in thin layers to the 



264 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXVH. 

action of the air ; hence its use in the preparation of 
paint and varnish, for which purpose the employment of a 
fatty, non-drying oil, as that of the olive, would not an- 
swer. It is also employed in large quantities for making 
putty, and for various purposes in the arts ; it is not un- 
wholesome, but it has a nauseous and unpleasant taste, 
which renders it unfit for the food of man. 

The crushed mass that remains after the extraction of 
the oil is termed oilcake, and is much used for fattening 
cattle. The skins of the seeds contain a large quantity of 
mucilaginous or gummy matter; this is dissolved when 
boiling water is poured upon the seeds, and forms the 
solution termed linseed tea; ground into powder the 
seeds furnish linseed meal, a substance used medicinally 
for poultices, &c. 

The manufacture of this oil has become a very impor- 
tant branch of industry in this country ; the seed for this 
purpose being largely imported from the British East 
Indies. 

I*alm OIL— This substance, which is in a solid form in 
temperate climates, is obtained from the fruit of a species 
of palm, found upon the w^estern coast of Africa, in the 
West Indies, and some parts of South America. It is ex- 
ported mostly to England, where it is bleached and manu- 
factured into candles and fine soaps. 

Castor Oil. — Is expressed from the seeds of the castor 
oil plant, and is chiefly used medicinally. It is also much 
used for burning in France, Italy, and some other 
countries. 

Volatile oils are very distuict in their character from 



OILS. 265 

those that are fixed and greasy. They are usually found 
in tlie flowers, but also m the other parts of certain vege- 
tables. By boiling the substances containing them with 
water, the oil is volatilized, and, passing over with the 
steam, may be collected and preserved for use. By this 
process of distillation, most of the volatile oils are col- 
lected ; some, however, as the volatile oil of lemon peel, 
are obtained by pressure. Many volatile oils are used as 
flavoring ingredients, as the oil of lemon ; or as perfumes, 
as those of bergamot, lavender, rosemary, <fec., &c. The 
most valuable volatile oil is that obtained from turpentine. 
The substance known as turpentine is a soft solid, com- 
posed of a mixture of reshi and volatile oil, obtained by 
wounding different trees of the fir tribe, when it exudes 
and is collected. 

The oil, or spirits of turpentine, is obtained by distil- 
ling it in an ordinary copper still, when the oil distils over, 
and the resin remains behind. The distilled fluid is color- 
less, very limpid, and possesses a peculiar and powerftd 
smell. It is much lighter than water, its specific gravity 
being about 875. From its volatile character, it is largely 
employed in coilimon paint, as it flies off in vapor when 
exposed to the air, leaving the drying linseed oil and 
white lead, of which the substance of the paint is chiefly 
composed. 

It is very inflammable, burning with a large flame and 

much smoke ; purified by a second distillation, it is known 

as camphene, and w*as formerly much used in lamps of a 

peculiar construction, but latterly its use has been entirely 

superseded by the mineral oil known as kerosene. 
12 



266 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXVin. 

LESSON XXVIIL 

SUGAR. 

\ 

Natural History. — Sugar is the j^roduce of a plant 
called the sugar cane, which has been cultivated from very 
remote times by the Chinese. It is now extensively grown 
in both the East and West Indies, Brazil, the United 
States, &c. The root of the sugar cane is jointed, solid, 
and perennial ; sending up several* smooth, jointed, un- 
branched stems, which rise to a height of from six to 
twelve feet, and which are filled with a pithy substance, 
containing a very sweet juic^. The leaves, Avhich are 
about three inches broad, and from three to four feet in 
length, spring singly from the joints, sheathing or wrap- 
ping round the stem for some distance, like the leaves of 
grasses. The to^) of the stem is furnished with a loose 
bundle of small downy flowers, of a pale lilac color, giving 
to the plant an exceedingly elegant appearance ; these 
blossoms are, however, rarely seen in the West Indies, as 
the canes are cut down before the time of flowering. 

The sugar cane is cultivated by planting the top joints 
when the cane is cut, each cutting producing several stems. 
The i^lanting does not require to be renewed annually, as 
fresh canes spring from the roots for some years in suc- 
cession. During growth, the canes are sometimes de- 
stroyed by numerous small insects that live on the juice; 
they are also subject to the depredations of monkeys, 
rats, &c. 

When the" canes are ripe, which is usually in March, 



SUGAR. 267 

they are cut, divided into convenient lengths, and carried 
to the mill, where they are crushed, and the juice ex- 
pressed by passing them between large iron rollers. The 
juice is immediately boiled, with the addition of a small 
quantity of lime, to promote the sej^aration of the impuri- 
ties, which rise to the surface in the form of a scum, and 
are skimmed off. The clear liquor is then rapidly boiled, 
until it becomes sufficiently thick to form solid grains on 
coohng. The sugar in this state is termed raw or moist 
sugar, and is packed in casks for exportation ; these casks 
are pierced with holes, through which the molasses, or un- 
crystallized portions of the sugar drain away. 

It is estimated that about one hundred canes yield five 
gallons of the best juice, and that these produce about five 
pounds of sugar. The fuel generally used in boiling is 
the crushed cane itself, previously dried by exposure to 
the sun. 

Sugar is also obtained from other plants : in some por- 
tions of the United States it is obtained from the sweet 
maple, and in France large quantities are prepared from 
beet root. 

Raw sugar is converted into loaf or lump sugar by a 
process termed refining. The raw sugar is dissolved in 
warm water, with the addition of a Httle Hme, and the 
liquor filtered through thick folds of cloth ; by this means 
it is freed from many impurities, and rendered transparent, 
although it remains colored. The next stage is the discol- 
oration of the syrup, which is effected by filtering it 
through layers of animal charcoal, or bone black, formed 
by heating bones to redness, in close iron vessels. The 



268 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XXVIII. 

colorless syrup is pumped into covered boilers, or, as they 
are called, vacuum pans ; here it is heated by steam pipes, 
and the air and vapor rising from it are pumped away by 
an air pump, the effect of which is, that the syrup boils at 
a very moderate heat, and is not discolored by burning 
When sufficiently concentrated by heat, the syrup is placed 
in moulds, where it forms, on cooling, a solid mass of gran- 
ular sugar ; this is purified by pouring a small quanj;ity of 
clear syrup on the top, which, flowing through, carries with 
it any j)ortions of sugar that have not crystallized. The 
substance known as treacle consists of the uncrystallizable 
portions of sugar which are left in the different processes 
of manufacture. 

Loaf sugar is a granular white solid, formed of a num- 
ber of small, hard, transparent crystals, slightly adhering 
together. When pure, it is free from smell, and has a 
sweet taste. It is soluble in water, forming a syrup of 
greater or less degree of thickness, according to the quan- 
tity of sugar dissolved. Weak solutions of sugar, espe- 
cially if any other vegetable substances are present, are 
apt to ferment, when the sugar is converted into spirit. 
The spirit of fermented liquors, it may be observed, in all 
cases, depends on the quantity of sugar contained in the 
substances of which they are formed. 

Loaf sugar is readily melted by a moderate heat, be- 
coming reddish brown ; if the heat is increased, a dark 
brown, soluble, slightly bitter substance is produced, much 
used for coloring soups, spirits, &c., under the name of 
caramel, or browning. Refined sugar furnishes a good 
example of a phosphorescent substance, two pieces rubbed 



COFFEE. 269 

against each other in the dark giving out a beautiful pale 
light. 

Uses. — Sugar forms an exceedingly wholesome article 
of food. It is remarked that during the harvest time the 
negroes engaged in the work, and even the horses and 
cattle feeding on the refuse become in good condition, 
although their labor is at that period much increased. It 
is the basis of all our confectionery, and an important ele- 
ment in many table delicacies. It is also much used in 
preserving fruits, meats (particularly hams), and fish. 

The quantity of raw sugar imported into England is 
above 9,000,000 cwt. yearly; about 300,000 cwt. of refined 
sugar is also imported. This amount shows a consumption 
of upward of thirty j)ounds per head to each person in 
Great Britain annually, a consumption greater than that 
of any country in the world, except the United States. In 
France the annual consumption is only four pounds per 
head ; in Russia and Germany still less. 

LESSON XXIX. 

COFFEE. 

Coffee is the seed of a plant growing principally in 
Arabia and the "West Indies; it reaches the height of 16 
or 18 feet; the flower resembles jessamine, and the leaves 
are evergreen ; the fruit when ripe is like the cherry ; it 
contains two cells, and each cell has a single hemispherical 
seed. When ripe, it is either gathered by the hand, or 
shaken from the trees, and placed on mats for the sun to 
dry the pulpy substance which surrounds the seed. The 



270 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXX. 

husk is broken by heavy rollers, and afterward removed 
by winnowing. In order to prepare the coffee for a bever- 
age, it must be roasted till it becomes of a dark brown 
color, and extremely odorous ; after which it is ground, 
and either infused or boiled in water. It is remarkable 
for its very stimulating property, and is used not only as 
a beverage, but as a medicine. Its discovery is said to 
have been occasioned by the following circumstance. 
Some goats, who browsed upon this plant, were observed 
by the goat herd to be exceedingly wakeful, and often to 
caper about in the night ; the prior of a neighboring mon- 
astery, wishing to keep his monks awake at their matins, 
tried if the coffee would produce the same effect upon 
them as it was observed to do upon the goats ; the success 
of his experiment led to the appreciation of its value. 

LESSON XXX. 

TEA. 

Natural History^ cBc. — Tea is the produce of a small 
evergreen shrub, a native of China, Japan, and some parts 
of India. The leaves are lance shaped, toothed like a saw, 
or serrated at the edges, of a bright deep-green color when 
fresh, their length varying from two to five inches. The 
flowers, which are white, with numerous yellow stamens, 
closely resemble those of the camellia japonica — a plant to 
which the tea shrub itself has a very considerable resem- 
blance. Each flower is succeeded by dry fruit, containing 
three seeds. 

The first crop of tea is not collected until the plants, 



TEA. 271 

which are raised from seeds, are three years old ; after this 
age the leaves are gathered several times during the 
course of the year, the young ones alone being plucked ; 
as soon as collected they are put into shallow baskets, 
partly dried by the sun and air, and afterward over a char- 
coal stove ; during the process they are rubbed between 
the hands, so as to roll them up, and are constantly stirred, 
to prevent scorching. 

There are two kinds of tea imported into this country 
— ^black and green. The black tea is prepared by placing 
the leaves in a heap after they are gathered, which pro- 
duces a slight degree of heat, sufficient to darken the 
leaves ; whereas the green tea is dried and rolled imme- 
diately after having been gathered. The inferior kinds 
are prepared by coloring the leaves with Prussian blue. 
The Chinese tea-makers employed by the East India Com- 
pany in Assam make both green and black tea indiscrimi- 
nately from the same trees. 

The transportation of tea from the tea districts to the 
shipping ports, is much of it performed by men, who carry 
the* chests, slung one at each end of a bamboo, which rests 
across the shoulder. 

The consumption of tea in Great Britain is about 65 
millions of pounds annually, being about two pounds for 
each person ; in the United States the quantity consumed 
is at the rate of about one pound for each person an- 
nually; on the continent of Europe coffee is employed 
to a much greater extent than tea ; and in the German 
States the annual consumption is only ha^f an ounce per 
head annually. 



272 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXXf. 

Uses. — The mode in which tea is used as a beverage 
requires no explanation. Its precise action on the system 
is not thoroughly understood ; it is slightly astringent, and 
contains a volatile oil, which has a peculiar effect on the 
nervous system, occasioning, when taken in large quanti- 
ties, watchfulness . and sleeplessness; on the other hand, 
when taken in moderation, it has a soothing effect on 
the circulation ; tea also contains a peculiar substance, 
termed ^Aem, which is supposed to assist considerably in 
the nutrition of the system. 

LESSOR XXXI. 

HOPS. 

Natural History. — The plant producing hops is found 
wild in the Eastern States, on the banks of the Mississippi 
and Missouri, and in the temperate parts of Europe. It is 
cultivated extensively in New England, Xew York, and 
Ohio. The English have carried its cultivation to great 
perfection ; in the county of Kent alone from 25,000 to 
30,000 acres are occupied by hop plantations. It has a 
perennial root, and a coarse, harsh, twining, annual stem, 
which grows to a great length, bearing large, opposite, 
heart-shaped, or lobed leaves, toothed like a saw at the 
margin, and extremely rough. The barren flowers are 
small, greenish, and very numerous. The fertile flowers 
grow on distinct plants, and consist of green scales, ar- 
ranged in cone-shaped heads, each scale enclosing a small 
seed vessel with a single seed, and several grains of a 
yellow powder, in which the bitter flavor of the hop 
chiefly resides. 



SAGO. 273 

In the hop grounds poles are placed for the plants to 
twine around ; these are taken down and laid across large 
baskets or boxes, when the hops are picked. The fertile 
flowers only are valuable, and the plants bearing the bar- 
ren ones are seldom allowed to grow. After being picked, 
the hops are dried in kilns, termed oast houses, and packed 
in large bags for the convenience of carriage. This pack- 
ing is frequently done by machinery, and the parcels are 
made so compact that they may be cut into blocks with 
a knife, and kept for years in a dry situation. The 
expense of cultivation is very great, and the crop is ex- 
ceedingly uncertain both in quality and quantity, the latter 
varying from two to twenty hundred-weight an acre; from 
ten to fourteen is regarded a favorable return ; warm sea- 
sons, with little rain, are most productive. 

Uses. — Hops possess a peculiar, bitter taste, and a 
strong odor ; they are valuable from their strengthening 
properties, and are also cultivated for their use in making 
beer and yeast, to which they impart their aromatic flavor, 
enabling them also to be kept a considerable time without 
turning sour. They are used in medicine, both in decoc- 
tions and in poultices. The fibres of the vine are strong 
and flexible, and are sometimes woven into coarse cloth, 
which serves for sacks in which to carry the hops to * 
market. 

LESSON XXXII. 

SAGO. 

Sago is the pith of the sago palm, a tree indigenous to 
Japan, and the dry rocky mountains of Malabar. 
12* 



274 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XXXH, 

It is hardly possible to imagine a plant more graceful 
in its foliage, or more beautiful when in fruit, than this 
species of palm. The foliation, which slightly resembles 
that of the fern, is placed on the stem in the manner of 
the feathers of a shuttlecock, forming a gigantic basket of 
the most graceful appearance ; at the bottom of this is the 
salmon-colored flower, resembling, both in shape and tex- 
ture, the blossom of the cockscomb, but of a pale buff 
color, inclining to brown. The fruit is a drupe, that is, a 
nut surrounded by a pulpy substance, as a plum. The 
growth of this plant at first is slow ; it appears for some 
time a shrub thickly set with prickles ; as it increases in 
height, it loses its thorns. When the tree has reached its 
maturity, a whitish powder transpires through the pores 
of the leaves, and adheres to their extremities. On this 
intimation of the trees being filled with pith, the Malays 
cut them down near their roots, and divide them into sev- 
eral sections, which are split into quarters. The bark is 
woody, and about an inch in thickness ; in the centre of 
the stem is a fat or gummy pith, which forms the sago. 
This pithy substance, being scooped out, is diluted in pure 
water, and strained through a bag of fine cloth, which 
separates the glutinous from the farinaceous matter. This 
latter having lost part of its moisture by evaporation, is 
passed through sieves, by which process it become granu- 
lated, and being received into earthen vessels, it dries and 
hardens into little globules. Sago is extremely nutritious 
and wholesome, and forms an excellent light diet for 
invalids. 



STAKCH. 275 

LESSON xxxm. 

STAECH. 

History and Properties. — Starch is a vegetable pro- 
duct, formed in very large quantity by many plants, and 
stored in various parts of their structure ; constituting a 
reservoir of food to be used in the future growth of the 
plant. It is found abundantly in seeds, as in wheat, rice, 
chestnuts, &c., &c. ; in stems, as in the sago palm ; in un- 
derground tubers and roots, as the potato, arrowroot, 
&c., &c. 

Starch is insoluble in cold water, and remains un- 
changed until it is recpired for the growth of the plant 
for. whose use it was stored up ; it then alters its charac- 
ter, becoming converted into sugar, which being soluble, is 
available for the nourishment of the growing plant. The 
results of this change are familiar in the conversion of bar- 
ley into malt, and in the sweetness of a potato that has 
begun to grow. 

Starch is prepared in England chiefly from wheat and 
rice flour ; in America, from Indian corn and potatoes ; and 
in France from horse chestnuts. Its preparation on a small 
scale may be shown by tying a small quantity of flour in a 
piece of muslin, and working it with the fingers in a vessel 
of water until all the starch has passed through, leaving 
the gluten of the flour ; on allowing the water to remain 
at rest, the starch so obtained settles at the bottom of the 
vessel. 

As thus obtained, starch is a granular powder, of a 



276 FIFTH STEP. — JoESSON XXXI V\ 

brilliant white appearance, perfectly insoluble in cold wa- 
ter, but soluble in boiling water, forming a thick gummy- 
solution, which is much used by laundresses, and in the 
manufacture of many textile fabrics, for the purpose of 
stiffening. 

Starch may also be rendered soluble by a dry heat ; the 
substance called dextrine, or British gam (which is used in 
the glazed print works), is made by exposing starch in 
ovens to a degree of heat rather above that of the boiling 
point of water. 

In addition to these uses, starch is an important in- 
gredient in almost all our vegetable food, and in a nearly 
l^ure state is used in the form of arrowroot, potato starch, 
corn starch, sago, and tapioca. 

MisceUcmeous Substances not used as food. 
LESSON XXXIV. 

WAFERS. 

Manufacture. — Wafers are made from wheaten flour, 
which is mixed with water so as to form a thin smooth 
paste ; this paste is pressed by the workmen between two 
thin polished iron plates, so joined together as to form, 
when closed, a pair of " wafer tongs ; " the plates do not 
quite touch each other, but are separated by a space as 
thick as the wafers are required ; when used they are 
slightly warmed and greased, filled with the flour paste, 
closed, and held for a few moments over a charcoal fire ; 
the heat sets the paste, and on separatmg the tongs, a thin 



SEALING WAX. 277 

sbeet of polished dry brittle wafer falls out. Several of 
these are piled up, and by means of a punch are cut into 
small circular wafers of the size required. Made with 
flour only, the wafers are white, but they are frequently 
colored by mixing various substances with the paste, as 
lamp black, gamboge, indigo, verraihon, and red lead; 
most of these substances are poisonous, especially the last 
two, and injurious effects have in consequence often fol- 
lowed their use in large numbers. Trans^^arent wafers are 
made of fine glue or isinglass, and some fancy wafers are 
cut from gilt or silvered paper, gummed on the lower sur- 
face, and generally embossed. 

TTses. — ^The use of wafers for fastening papers and let- 
ters dej^ends on their becoming soft and adhesive w^hen 
moistened ; if in this state they are placed between two 
pieces of paper, and the latter pressed together, the wafer 
adheres to both, and when dry unites them firmly. 

LESSOIN* XXXV. 

. SEALING WAX. 

Manufacture, — Sealing wax is prepared by melting to- 
gether a resinous substance termed shellac (which is found 
encrusting certmn trees in the East Indies), and about one 
quarter of its weight of Venice turpentine, a thick clammy 
substance, obtained by wounding the larch tree ; to these 
ingredients are added, for red wax, the pigment vermilion, 
and, for black, lamp black; these substances are well 
mixed, and rolled into cylindrical rods on a hot smooth 
marble slab ; these rods are cut into sticks of the j^roj^er 



278 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXXVI. 

length ; polished by exposure for a few moments to a char- 
coal fire ; and marked by a stamp with the maker's name ; 
oval sticks are formed by casting the wax into moulds of 
the desired shape. 

Inferior kinds of wax, such as that used for covering 
the corks of bottles, are made from common resin and red 
lead, ox other coarse coloring material. 

Properties and Uses, — Sealing wax is a hard, easily 
fusible substance, capable of catching fire when placed in 
the flame of a candle, and of burning steadily ; the heat 
given out by the blazing portion melts another part, which 
falls down in drops in a fused and adhesive state, capable 
of adhering very firmly to paper, or any other porous sub- 
stances ; it will not, however, unite to the polished face of 
a metal or stone seal. In its melted state, sealing wax is 
sufficiently plastic to receive any impression stamped upon 
it ; this it retains as it becomes solid. It is therefore much 
used by seal engravers in obtaining fine proof imj^ressions. 

The ordinary resins do not answer for sealing wax, be- 
cause they are so fusible as to melt in the flame before 
they are sufficiently heated to take fire. 

lesso:n^ XXXVI. 

PAPER. 

Paper is made from a great variety of materials, as 
linen, cotton, worn out India bagging, wood, bark, straw, 
hay, and thistles, according to the kind required. The 
Chinese are supposed to have been the first manufacturers 
of linen paper. It was not, however, till the 13th or 14th 



PAPER. 279 

century that the art became known to European nations. 
It is made of linen rags, first carefully picked and sorted 
according to their quality; they are then reduced to a 
pulp by a machine which consists of a solid cylindrical 
piece of wood, into which are fastened plates of steel 
ground very sharp ; this is fixed in a trough, into which 
the rags are put with a sufficient quantity of water. At 
the bottom of the trough is a jolate with steel bars, also 
ground sharp. The engine being turned round with con- 
siderable velocity, and the rags passing through the two 
sets of iron plates, are torn to pieces, and in the course of 
four hours are reduced to a pulp. The motion of the en- 
gine causes the water in the trough to circulate, and by 
that means constantly returns the stuff to the engine. The 
trough is fed with clear water at one end, while the dirty 
water is carried off at the other through a hole defended 
with wire grating to prevent the escape of the pulp. From 
this, which is called the washing engine^ the pulp passes in 
a state of purity and whiteness to another engine, similarly 
constructed, and called the heating engine. The only dif- 
ference between this operation and the former is, that the 
velocity is increased, and that it is jio longer necessary 
to introduce fresh water, the j^ulp having been already 
cleansed from its impurities. From hence it passes into 
a large vat connected with boilers, and the heat they 
produce gives the pulp a degree of consistency ; it is 
afterward conveyed into smaller vessels, in each of which 
is a wheel called an agitator, which prevents it from sink- 
ing to the bottom. Into these vessels a workman dips a 
mould;, a kind of sieve, the size of the paper to be made, 



280 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XXXVI. 

and about an inch deep; the bottom is formed of fine 
brass wires, through which the superfluous water passes. 
The skill of the workman consists in taking up just so 
much pulp as is necessary to form the paper of a proper 
thickness. Another workman is stationed to receive from 
the first the mould, out of which he turns the sheet upon 
a felt or woollen cloth ; another woollen cloth is placed 
upon it, ready to receive the next sheet. Thus they pro- 
ceed, placing alternately paper and felt, till they have made 
six quires of paj^er. This is then wheeled to the press, 
where great force is applied, and the water is squeezed 
from it. After this the paper is separated from the felt ; 
one sheet is laid upon another, and it undergoes a second 
pressure. This operation is repeated five or six times, 
and the sheets are separated from one another between 
each application of the screw-press. They are afterward 
hung up to dry in rooms where there is a current of fresh 
air. In this state the paper is absorbent, like blotting pa- 
per ; to fit it for writing it is sized. Size is made of vel- 
lum * shavings, boiled in water, with sulphate of zinc and 
alum finely pounded. After the paper is sized, it is again 
pressed four or five times, and hung up to dry as before. 
It is then told into quires, and sent to the stationer^ who 
prepares it for sale. 

The most ancient kind of paper was made from the 
papyrus, a species of reed growing on the banks of the 
Nile, from whence our name paper. Leaves also were em- 
ployed at a very early period for the purpose of preserving 
and transmitting the opinions and experience of mankind ; 
* Vellum is the prepared skin of young calves. 



NUTGALLS. . 281 

hence originated the word folio (folium being the Latin 
for leaf), and also the meaning of leaf as applied to a book. 
The use of bark succeeded that of leaves, generally the inner 
bark of the lime tree ; it was called by the Romans libe)% 
and they gave the name of liber to a book, and we have 
adopted the term library for a collection of books. For 
the convenience of carrying, this substance was rolled up, 
and in this form was denominated volumen^ from which is 
clearly derived our volume. Our Saxon ancestors em- 
ployed the bark of the beech, and called it boc, a name 
which we have transferred to our book. It is i^robable 
that the skins of animals were the first substances upon 
which characters were written. 

lesso:n^ xxxyii. 

NUTGALLS. 

Natural History. — N'utgalls are obtained from a small, 
shrubby oak, that grows abundantly in all the countries of 
Asia Minor. The plant seldom attains a greater height 
than six feet. It bears leaves, flowers, and acorns, which 
do not differ in any very great degree from those of our 
native oaks. The nutgalls are caused by a small fly, which 
l^ierces the bark of the young shoots to deposit its ^^^^ ; 
around this a swelling takes place, forming the gall ; when 
the Q^^ is hatched, the grub feeds on the substance of the 
gall that surrounds it ; after a time it is changed into a 
perfect insect, and, by gnawing a hole through the side of 
the nutgall, makes its escape. 

Nutgalls are gathered by hand. They are most valu- 



282 riFTn step. — lesson xxxvii. 

able when arrived at their full size, and before they are 
pierced by the fly ; in this state they are termed blue galls ; 
as obtained in commerce, they are nearly spherical, vary- 
ing in size from a large pea to a large nut ; the best are of 
a deep olive color, and are covered with tubercular projec- 
tions, heavy, brittle, with an almost flinty fracture ; when 
broken, they exhibit the remains of the grub, and not un- 
frequently the perfect insect is found enclosed. Those 
from whicli the insects have escaped are lighter in color, 
not so heavy, and, as before observed, of less value. They 
are known in commerce as white galls. 

Properties and Uses, — ISTutgalls are inodorous, and of 
an extremely nauseous, astringent, bitter taste. They are 
much used in the manufacture of writing ink, as they 
produce a black color when mixed with preparations of 
iron ; they are also largely employed in dyeing silk, cloth, 
and other substances, of a black color ; occasionally they 
are used in medicine. 



EsrsECTS. 283 



THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 

INSECTS. 

General Observations on Insects, 

The animals which belong to this large and important 
class receive their name from the Latin word insectus, cut 
into ; as they have in general the appearance of being cut 
into three parts— the head, the chest, and the abdomen. 
They are also distinguished by passing through a very re- 
markable series of changes before they arrive at their per- 
fect state. The bodies of insects, in every stage, are 
destitute of any internal framework of bones, being sup- 
ported by the skin, which is frequently sufficiently firm to 
be capable of giving a fixed shape to the body, and of 
forming the joints to the limbs. 

In their perfect or mature state the head is covered 
with several distinct pieces of horny skm, and usually fur- 
nished with two movable organs, termed from their use 
feelers; below these is the mouth, which opens perpen- 
dicularly. The eyes of insects generally are compound, 
each eye, though apparently single, consisting of a large 
number of eyes united together ; in some species, however, 
the eyes are simple, and few in number. 

The chest supports the wings, which are either two in 
number, as in the house fly ; or four, as in the butterfly. 
In some classes the upper wings are not used for flight, 
but form a horny covering for the protection of the two 



284 FIFTH STEP. THE ANIJiIAL KINGDOM. 

lower wings, which are thin and delicat-e ; this occurs in 
the lady bird, the cockchafer, &c. The difference in the 
construction of the wings is very considerable, and fur- 
nishes the means whereby this large class of animals (of 
which naturalists have reckoned more than 100,000 dis- 
tinct kinds) can be arranged into several smaller divisions 
or orders ; to the chest also are attached the legs, which in 
all true insects are six in number. Insects do not breathe 
through their mouths, or by means of lungs, but the air 
passes through pores in their sides, and is then conveyed 
by very small tubes over the whole body. 

The changes through which insects pass are very singu- 
lar ; they are hatched from eggs, which are usually laid in 
great numbers, and deposited with remarkable instinct in 
the immediate neighborhood of such food as will be suit- 
able to the young. From these eggs proceed larvm^ or, as 
they are more commonly called, grubs, maggots, or cater- 
l^illars, which are at birth very small in size ; they, how- 
ever, usually grow with great rapidity, eating voraciously ; 
a silkworm, for example, attains in thirty days many thou- 
sand times its original weight. 

During their continuance in this state, their rapid 
growth renders it necessary that the skin should be seve- 
ral times cast off, to permit the great increase of size that 
takes place. 

Arrived at its full size, the larva changes into a pupa^ 
or chrysalis, in which state it is enclosed in a horny skin, is 
destitute of limbs, and without the power of moving. 
After remaining in this state for some time, the animal 
bursts its enclosure and appears as the perfect insect ; in 



BEESWAX. 285 

this stage its life is usually short ; it lays eggs for the pro- 
duction of another generation, and dies. In some insects 
the whole of the stages described are not passed through, 
or- are not distinctly marked. This is the case with the 
common cockroach, or house beetle, and many others. 

Though individually of small size and comparative in- 
significance, yet insects, from their vast numbers and great 
voracity, are of the utmost importance in the economy of 
nature. In numerous cases they act as natural scavengers, 
removing with great rapidity all kinds of decaying animal 
and vegetable matters ; and many are useful directly to 
man, furnishing him with food, medicine, dyes, &c. 

INSECTS, AND SUBSTANCES DERIVED FROM! THEM. 
LESSOISr XXXVIII. 

BEESWAX. 

Preparation and Uses. — ^Beeswax, the formation of 
which has been already described, is prepared for use by 
melting the comb in boiling water, the honey- having been 
previously extracted ; in this state it is yellow, and has a 
peculiar smell. Yellow wax is freed from impurities by 
melting, when the heavier particles sink to the bottoin, and 
the lighter rise to the top, and are removed by skimming. 
When purified, it is used for making ointments, cements, 
&c. ; it melts quickly under the heat of boiling water, and 
becomes soft at the temperature of the human body. 
"When warm, it is sufficiently soft to take the impression 
of any object, which it retains when cold and hard; for 



286 riPTH STEP. LESSON XXXVIII. 

this purpose wax is much used by dentists, &c. Beeswax 
is whitened by the process of bleaching ; it is first formed 
into thin ribands or shavings, which are laid upon canvas 
in a bleaching ground, where, by the action of the sun, 
they become colorless, and are cast into small flat cakes. 
In this state wax is used for making artificial flowers and 
fruit, for waxing sewing thread, and for making candles. 
The manufacture of wax candles differs from the mode 
adopted in making any other kind. Common candles are 
made by repeatedly dipping the wicks into the melted tal- 
low until they are of suflncient size for use ; and the name 
of dips is given them from the manner in which they are 
made. The candles called moulds are made by pouring 
the melted tallow into pewter moulds in which the wick 
has been previously stretched. If wax were to be treated 
in this way, it would not come out readily from the mould ; 
therefore, in forming candles of this substance, the wicks 
are hung on a hoop su'spended over a pan of melted wax ; 
the workman pours over each wick a quantity of wax, 
which adheres to it ; but as the candle would be larger at 
the bottom from the running down of the melted wax, the 
wick is unhooked and hung iip again bottom uj)ward, 
when wax is again poured over it, and it becomes of a 
more uniform shape. It is then taken from the hoop, laid 
on a moist slab, and rolled with a smooth board until it is 
of the proper shape ; the required length is given it by 
cutting off the rough end. 



GKASSnOPPEE. 287 

LESSON XXXIX. 

GKASSHOPPER. 

Natural History. — Grasshoppers are well known in- 
sects, remarkable for possessing in an almost equal degree 
the powers of flying and leaping. The body is thin, long, 
and flattened at the sides ; the legs are six in number, the 
hiuder>ones being much larger than the others, and longer 
than the body. Each hind leg consists of three distinct 
l^arts — the thigh, the shank, and the foot ; these legs are 
not used in walking, but are only employed in leaping. 
When the animal wishes to leap, it draws the feet of the 
hind legs close to that part of the thigh that joins the 
body, the joint uniting the thigh and shank being bent to 
a very sharp angle, high above the back of the insect; 
the various joints of the leg are then suddenly and pow- 
erfully straightened, and the foot forcibly striking the 
ground, the animal is propelled high into the air. 

The wings of the perfect insect are thin and membra- 
nous ; when at rest they e not observed, as they are 
folded up in a fan-like form under narrow wing-cases. 

The chirping noise made by the insect is caused by 
the rubbing of the thighs of the hind legs against the 
horny wing covers. The appetite of these insects is vora- 
cious ; they feed entirely on vegetable substances. 

The eggs of the female are deposited in the ground, 
and the young hatched from them resemble the old ones 
in appearance ; but they are not furnished with either 
wings or wing-covers, consequently they are unable to fly 



288 FIFTH STEP. SHELLS. 

* 

or chirp. After some time these parts grow, and the 
young one is changed into the perfect insect. 

SHELLS. 

General Observations on Shells, 

The substances known as shells are the natural cover- 
ings of certain animals, which are distinguished by the 
absence of any internal framework or skeleton ; by having 
cold and colorless blood; by their senses baing usually 
but slightly developed ; and by their being soft, fleshy, 
and cold to the touch ; animals of this kind are termed 
molluscous, from two Latin words signifying soft flesh ; 
some of them, as the common slug, are destitute of any 
shelly covering. 

The number of distinct shells which have been de- 
scribed is upward of fifteen thousand. 

Shells consist chiefly of chalk or carbonate of lime, 
which is cemented into a mass by animal matter ; the in- 
ner surface of each is lined by a part of the skin of the 
animal, which has the power of secreting or forming the 
substance of the shell ; and, as the animal grows, is con- 
stantly enlarging it, by adding new sheU at the edges, or 
around the mouth of the opening ; this skin has also the 
power of repairing any injury that may have occurred, by 
forming new shell at the injured part. 

Shells are interesting to us, not only on account of 
their beauty and durability, but also from the evident in- 
stances of design they afibrd, and from the creative wisdom 
displayed in their formation ; those which are exposed to 



SHELLS. 289 

the dashing of the waves on the shore, or to the torrents 
of rapid rivers, are often of almost impenetrable hardness, 
as in the periwinkle ; others, like the common snail, not 
exposed to violence, are thin and light, so that they may- 
be readily borne by the inhabitant ; every shell offer strik- 
ing proofs of design and fitness in its adaptation to the ani- 
mal's station and habits. 

Shells, and their inhabitants, are of direct use to man 
in numerous instances ; the animals in many cases furnish 
very nutritious articles of food. Shells are often burned 
for the sake of the lime they yield ; others are employed 
in an unburned state as valuable manure ; and some kinds 
are used as a substitute for gravel in garden and park 
walks. To the natives of savage countries they are espe- 
cially valuable ; the sharp edges of broken pieces being 
used as substitutes for knives, and for forming arrow and 
spear heads ; they are also formed into fish hooks, and used 
as vessels for holding liquids. Over a large extent of 
Africa a small shell, the money cowry, j^asses instead of 
money, being taken in exchange for goods and labor in the 
same manner as coins are in civilized countries ; the value, 
however, of each shell is very small, a string of forty being 
not worth more than from one cent to four cents. About 
1,000 tons of money cowries are annually imported into 
England from India, being employed by English traders in 
the purchase of goods from the natives on the west coast 
of Africa. 

In China, a thin, semi-transparent shell is used as a sub- 
stitute for glass in glazing windows in the junks, and for 
lanterns. 



290 riFTn STEP. — SHELLS. 

Vast numbers of several distinct species of foreign 
shells are used in the manufacture of cameos for brooches 
and other ornaments. These are formed from univalve 
shells, which consist of several layers of diiferent colors. 
The engraver cuts away the outer layers, so producing the 
pattern or design required. Cameos are chiefly made in 
Paris, where upward of 100,000 shells are used annually. 
A large proportion of the cameos made in France are sent 
to England, and are mounted as brooches at Birmingham, 
and then exported to America and the colonies. In 185G 
there were imported into England unmounted cameos of 
the declared value of 6,683Z. 

Shells, for the convenience of arrangement, are ar- 
ranged into three groups — those formed of one piece, or 
valve, are termed univalves, as the snail, whelk, &c. ; those 
formed of two valves, united by a hinge, are termed bi- 
valves, as the oyster, mussel, &c. ; and those formed of 
several pieces are termed multivalves ; the latter, however, 
are not so abundant as the first two divisions. 

Univalve Shells. — A univalve shell is usually formed 
of several hollow whorls, which are coiled round so as to 
form the sj^ire, the largest and last formed being termed 
the bod)/ ivhorl / the entrance into the shell is termed the 
mouthy its two sides the li2)S / where the spire ends is 
termed the 2^oi7it, or top of the shell ; its opposite extrem- 
ity the base; many shells, as that of the whelk, liave a 
'projection at the bottom of the mouth ; this is called a 
beaJc ; it frequently contains a canal, into which the trunk 
of the living animal is received. When an animal inhabit- 
ing a univalve shell is full grown, the body whoid and 



SNAIL. 291 

• 

mouth are often mnch altered in form, and frequently so 
much enlarged as entirely to overspread and conceal the 
spire and other parts, — this happens in the cowries, the 
spotted and striped varieties of which are frequently seen 
ornamenting our sitting rooms. 

The animals inhabiting: univalve shells are much more 
complicated in their formation than those of the bivalves ; 
they have a distinct head, which is generally furnished 
with organs termed feelers ; they also possess the sense of 
sight, and are furnished with a broad fleshy foot on which 
they crawl. 

LESSON^ XL. 

SNAIL. 

Natural History. — Snails, of which many distinct kinds 
are found in this and other countries, are univalves, of a 
conical form, with a large swelling body whorl, a smooth 
surface destitute of spires or projections, and a roundish 
mouth without a beak ; the shell is thin and light ; at the 
same time it is possessed of considerable strength ; the 
animals are furnished with four feelers, the two upper are 
the longer, and carry at their ends two eyes, which appear 
like dark s^jots ; the means by which these feelers are pro- 
truded and drawn in at the will of the animal are particu- 
larly interesting; each feeler may be compared to the 
finger of a glove, the inside of which has a string sewn to 
the tip ; the effect of pulling the string woul<ii,be to turn 
in the finger of the glove, beginning at the extremity ; 
precisely this contrivance exists in the feeler of the snail, 



292 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XL. 

which, however, possesses what does not exist in the glove, 
— a series of circular rings like fibres surrounding it at 
every part, by the contraction of which, in their proper 
order, the feeler is again turned out or protruded. The 
eggs of the snail are large for the size of the animal ; they 
are white, and resemble berries in appearance ; they are 
deposited in June. 

Its food consists entirely of vegetable substances ; dur- 
ing winter, or the extreme drought of summer, or at any 
time when their natural food is not to be obtained, they 
close the mouth or opening of the shell with a thin lid of 
hardened slime, and become torpid ; if put into a box they 
will iix themselves to the sides and remain in a dormant 
state for years, reviving, however, immediately if moist- 
ened. By this beneficent contrivance these animals are 
not only enabled to abstain from food during winter, but 
when extreme dryness in summer has parched up the 
vegetables on which they live, they have the power of be- 
coming dormant, whilst the same refreshing shower that 
restores the green herbage, calls back to life those animals 
whose food it forms. 

Various kinds of snails have been used as food ; a large 
species, with a shell of a whitish color, with brown bands, 
was eaten by the Romans, and is now used for food in 
many parts of Europe. The common garden snail has 
been used sometimes in soup prepared for consumptives. 
Snails form the favorite food of many birds, esiDccially 
those of thje thrush kind, and they are also eaten by other 
animals. 



LIMPET. 293 

LESSON XLI. 

LIMPET. 

Natural History. — ^The shell of the lunpet is remark- 
able for its form, being conical without and concave with- 
in, and destitute of the spirally twisted whorls that are 
usually found in univalve shells. The animal is furnished 
with a pair of feelers, with eyes, and a hard, firm mouth, 
having a long tongue covered with minute hooks for rasp- 
ing down the sea-weeds on which it feeds ; it has a broad 
fleshy foot, with wliich it fixes itself immovably to rocks 
and stones when left uncovered by the tide ; this it efiects 
by drawing up the foot in such a manner as to form a vac- 
uum in the interior, when the weight of the air and water 
firmly presses down the shell, on the same principle that 
one may attach a key to his tongue. This simple contri- 
vance, and the conical form of the shell, enable it to with- 
stand the violence of the waves that dash against the 
rocks ; and thus this little animal from within its stony 
castle bids defiance to the storm, and magnifies the good- 
ness of Him who made it. 

In Scotland the limpet is frequently used for food, and 
the liquid obtained by boiling it is, when mixed with oat- 
meal, much esteemed. 

LESSON XLII. 

PERIWINKLE. 

Natural History. — ^The shell of the periwinkle, al- 



294 rirrn step. — ^lesson XLin. 

though apparently resembling that of the snail, clifiers in 
several inijportant particulars, as might be expected from 
the fact that one animal inhabits the land, while the other 
is exposed to the violence of the waves on the sea-shore ; 
the shell of the snail is thin, light, and delicate ; that of 
the periwinkle exceedingly thick and of uncommon 
strength, so that it will frequently support the weight of 
a person standing on it without being crushed ; in form 
the shell is more pointed than that of the common garden 
snail, — it consists of five or six rounded whorls, the body 
whorl being larger than all the others; attached to the 
animal is a horny lid, w^ith which it is able to close the 
opening of the shell when it retreats within it. The ani- 
mals inhabiting these shells differ also very considerably, 
— one breathing air by means of lungs, wdiile the respira- 
tion of the other resembles that carried on by the gills of 
a fish. 

The periwinkle is very extensively used for food by the 
poorer classes of London, being eaten after having been 
boiled ; it is collected in enormous quantities from the 
rocks and stones, when they are left bare by the ebbing 
of the tide. 

LESSOI:^ XLin. 

WHELK. 

Natural History. — The shell of this animal is formed 
of seven or eight rounded whorls marked with raised 
stripes, and is of a dingy w^hite or brownish color ; the 
mouth of the shell is oval, with a short beak and a canal at 



WHELK. 205 

the base ; the spire is much more elongated than in the 
snail or periwinkle. 

The animal is not a vegetable feeder, but subsists on 
the inhabitants of other shells, especially on muscles ; it is 
enabled to obtain its food by means of a short trunk or 
proboscis, furnished at the extremity with a number of 
very small teeth, — with these it bores through the shells 
of its prey, and extracts the softer parts. The destructive 
powers of a kind of whelk proved very annoying to the 
builders and light-house keepers of the Bell Rock light- 
house, on the coast of Scotland ; they had obtained a num- 
ber of a large kind of muscle, and endeavored to plant a 
colony of them on the rock, for use as food and for bait ; 
the muscles were soon observed to open their shells and 
die in great numbers ; and it was ascertained that the rock 
whelk, with its proboscis, bored small holes in the shells, 
and sucked out the finer parts of the body of the muscle, 
which, of course, perished ; it was remarked that the whelk 
always bored the thinnest part of the muscle shell, and 
that the hole was beautifully smooth and circular. As the 
muscles were of great importance to the men, they endeav- 
ored to destroy their enemies ; but these were so numer- 
ous that all their efforts were in vain, and in three years 
the muscles were all extirpated. 

Whelks furnish but indifferent food for man, as they 
are hard and indigestible; they are, however, liked by 
some persons, and are constantly sold in the streets of 
London and other places ; by fishermen they are largely 
employed as bait. 



296 riFTU STEP. — LESSON XLIV. 

LESSOX XLIV. 

SHELLS OF TWO PIECES, OR BIVALVES. 

The two pieces, or valves, of which these shells are 
formed, are united, at the part called the hinge, by an 
elastic ligament, which keeps the shell open ; but the ani- 
mal, by means of one or more strong muscles, or white 
fibrous contractile bands, which are attached inside the 
valves, and pass from one to the other, can close them at 
pleasure. At the hinge are often small prominences ; 
these are called teeth, and the points of the valves over 
the hinge are called beaks. 

The animals inhabiting these shells differ much from 
those of the univalves ; they have no distinct head, and 
consequently do not possess either eyes or feelers ; their 
mouth is merely a small aperture, destitute of teeth ; they 
breathe by means of gills ; these gills in the oyster are the 
parts familiarly known as the beard, — when examined by a 
microscope, they are found to be covered with minute 
bodies called cilia, in shape like hairs, which, by their 
constant motion, cause currents in the water that carry 
food to the mouth of the animal. 

Some of these animals are furnished with feet, by 
which they crawl ; others, like the muscle, anchor them- 
selves by a cable of small fibres, while a third set, as the 
oyster, cement themselves to rocks, and are incapable of 
moving from place to place. 



MUSCLE. 297 

LESSON XLV. 

MUSCLE. 

Natural History. — The shell of the muscle consists of 
two valves of equal size, and similar oval shape, j)ointecl at 
the beaks ; their color is brown externally, but when freed 
from the outer layer, and polished, of a beautiful deep blue, 
the inside pearly white, but bluish towards the edges. The 
animals have the power of moving from place to place by 
means of a tongue-shaped foot, which they push out of the 
shell to some distance, and withdraw again ; when they 
wish to move, they place the shell erect on its edge, and 
stretch out the foot, — this, being sticky, adheres to the 
ground, and, when shortened, pulls the shell forward ; in 
this way the muscle moves along until it finds a convenient 
place of residence, when it forms a bundle of fine silky 
threads, one end of which it fastens to the rock, while the 
other is attached to the animal ; thus it remains securely 
anchored. 

Muscles are found on the coast of England in immense 
numbers, in beds which are uncovered at low water ; wo- 
men and children tear them away with iron hooks from the 
rocks and stones to which they are attached, and sell them 
as they are thus collected ; but in France they are fattened 
as oysters are in this country. 

The muscle is largely used for food, being eaten either 

plainly boiled or pickled ; it is a rich, and, when in season, 

not an unwholesome food ; in the summer, however, it is 

apt to disagree with many persons ; this was long thought 
13* 



298 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XLVI. 

to "be owing to a small crab, whicli is often found in the 
shell with the muscle, but there seems no good reason for 
this suj^position ; the muscle is much used by fishermen as 
a bait for cod, haddock, &c. Th& shells are also much 
employed for holding the gold paint used by artists. 

LESSON" XLYI. 

MOTHEK-OF-PEAEL. 

Description, — Mother-of-pearl is the hard, semi-trans- 
parent, brilliant, iridescent substance which forms the in- 
ternal layer of several kinds of shells ; the interior of the 
common oyster shell is of this character, but the mother- 
of-pearl used in the arts is much more variegated with a 
play of color, and the larger shells of the tropical seas 
alone have this substance of sufficient thickness to be use- 
ful ; the chief sup^^ly of the mother-of-pearl oyster shell 
comes from the coasts of Ceylon, the Persian Gulf, and 
parts of Australia. 

The play of colors in mother-of-joearl depends on its pecu- 
liar structure ; it is so formed that it possesses, even when 
polished, a series of fine grooves running over the surface ; 
these reflect the light in such a manner as to produce the 
various hues seen on the surface; the furrows are too small 
to be distinguished by the naked eye, but may be seen with 
the aid of a microscope ; an imj)ressiou of them may be 
taken with very fine black sealing wax, which will then 
possess, to a considerable extent, a similar appearance. 

Uses to Man, — Immense quantities of mother-of-pearl 
are used in the manufacture of small articles, such as but- 



ll 



BONES. 299 

tons, knife handles, salt spoons, &c., &c., and it is much 
employed in inlaying dark woods, with which its varied 
sm-face forms a beautiful and striking contrast. 

Recently, the dark varieties of the shell have come into 
demand ; these were formerly regarded as valueless, and 
were rejected. It is stated that whole wagon loads lie 
buried under some of the streets of Birmingham, where it 
was thrown as waste, while it is now worth from 15^. to 
201. per ton. 

Some idea may be formed of the extensive use of this 
material from the fact that England imported in 1857 
nearly 35,000 cwt., the estimated value being 57,819/. 
Of this quantity, about one-fourth was re-exported to 
other countries, the remainder being retained for home 
consumption. 

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 
LESSON XLYIL 

BONES. 

I^atural History. — ^The bodies of all the higher classes 
of animals are supported by an internal framework of 
bones, termed the skeleton ; these bones, to resist without 
injury the various forces to which they are exposed in the 
living body, must be able to bear compression, extension, 
and twisting, without either bending or breaking ; for that 
purpose they are formed of two materials — one an earthy 
substance, which is chiefly phosphate of lime, to give so- 
lidity and hardness ; the other an animal substance, resem- 



300 FIFTH STEP. LESSOX XL VII. 

bling glue or gelatine, to imj^art toughness ; if a bone is 
slightly burnt in the fire, the gelatine is charred, and it 
becomes black ; Avhen exposed to a red heat in the open 
air for a longer time, the animal matter is entirely burnt 
away, and the white earthy phosphate of lime alone re- 
mains ; this retains the form of the bone, but is exceed- 
ingly brittle, from the destruction of the gelatine ; by 
soakino: a bone in diluted acid for a considerable time, the 
earthy matter may be removed, leaving the gelatine in the 
form of a flexible gristle. The composition of bone may 
be stated generally as — 

Organic matter, chiefly gelatine, ... 40 parts. 

Phosphate of lime, 50 " 

Carbonate of lime (chalk), . . . . 8 " 

Other mineral materials, . . . . 2 *' 

100 

The uses of the framework of bones to the animal may 
be arranged under three divisions : — 1st, by their hardness 
and firmness they give support and a fixed shape to the 
body. 2d, they enclose and protect delicate and important 
organs from external injury, — thus, the bones of the skull 
protect the brain, those of the chest the heart and lungs. 
3d, they give firmness to the limbs, and at the joints, where 
they are connected together, admit of motion ; those parts 
of the bones that rub over each other during the move- 
ments of the limbs, are covered with a very smooth gristle 
or cartilage, and are moistened by an unctuous fluid. 

As the same quantity of male'rial makes a stronger 
column when arranged in the form of a hollow tube than 



BONES. 301 

as a solid cylinder, the long bones of the limbs are formed 
into hollow tubes, the cavity being, in terrestrial animals, 
filled with an oily fluid, which hardens, when cold, into 
marrow, — and in birds, with air ; this, when heated by 
the w^armth of the animal, has a tendency to render it 
lighter. 

Uses to Man. — Bones are a very important article of 
commerce. After having been boiled to extract the 
grease, which is used in soap and candle making, the 
larger kinds, termed shank bones, of which 2,000,000 are 
used annually at Sheffield, are employed for knife handles, 
tooth and nail brushes, combs, paper knives, spoons ; the 
smaller for buttons, and a variety of small articles ; the 
shavings and sawdust formed in making these articles are 
used either as manure or for size-making. Heated in closed 
iron vessels, bones turn black ; in this state they are 
termed animal charcoal, or bone black, an article much 
used in clarifying sugar. 

One great use of bones, is as manure, especially in 
England ; for this purpose they are collected from every 
part of the island, and even from the Continent, and 
crushed, either coarsely, or into a fine powder ; in either 
state the farmer scatters them over his land, or sows a 
quantity with his seed. When acted upon by oil of vit- 
riol, or sulphuric acid, they furnish a valuable manure, 
known under the name of superphosphate of lime. 

The earthy matter of bones contains a large portion 
of phosphorus, which, when extracted by chemical pro- 
cesses, is used extensively for the manufacture of matches. 

About 70,000 tons of bone are annually imported into 



302 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XLVIH. 

England ; about one third of this large quantity comes 
from the cattle feeding plains of South America, and about 
one fifth from Russia. 



LESSON XLYIII. 

FEATHERS. 

Natural History. — Feathers are the substances that 
form the clothing or natural covering of birds. The 
habits and movements of these animals are so peculiar as 
to require in their clothing a very unusual combination of 
qualities ; it must be a bad conductor of heat, so as to 
prevent the escaj^e of the natural warmth of the animal, 
under all circumstances, whether in the water or in the 
cold upper regions of the air, or in winter. It is neces- 
sary also that it should be exceedingly light, for, if heavy, 
it would render flight impracticable ; a striking example 
of the extreme lightness of a bird's plumage is afforded by 
the fact, that all the feathers of the common owl (a bird 
very abundantly clothed) weigh only one oun<?e and a half; 
this lightness must, nevertheless, in the feathers of the 
wings, be combined with great strength, as these parts are 
forcibly struck against the air, in the act of flying. The 
whole covering must be flexible, to permit the varied 
movements of the animal, and sufficiently smooth to offer 
the least possible resistance to the rajDid passage of the 
bird through the air ; and, lastly, the entire covering must, 
in many instances, be waterproof. 

On examination we shall find that these apparently 



FEATHEKS. 303 

opposite qualities of warmth, lightness, strength, flexibility, 
smoothness, and the power of resisting the entrance of 
water, are combined in the covering of birds in a manner 
which most strongly proclaims the wisdom and beneficence 
of the Creator, who has declared that without Him " not 
even a sparrow falleth to the ground." A feather consists 
of three parts — a quill or barrel, a shaft, and a vane or 
beard ; the quill is that part of the feather by which it is 
attached to the body of the bird ; it is formed of a horny 
substance, of a hard and elastic nature, remarkably strong 
and light ; this lightness is given by its being formed in the 
shape of a hollow cylinder, which is filled with air ; it is 
hollow for the same reason that the bones are hollow, that 
is, to ensure strength with the least possible weight. That 
the quill may also possess strength in every direction, it is 
formed of two sets of fibres, (though, from their being <c^ 
transparent, this is not readily seen) ; one set runs in the 
direction of the length of the quill ; it is this set that is 
torn apart (not across) when a quill is split to make a pen ; 
the other fibres are circular, and run round the former, 
binding them together ; if this circular set is not scraped 
off before making a pen, the sht is jagged, in consequence 
of their being torn across. 

The membranous substance found within the quill is 
the dried remains of the blood vessels by which the feather 
was nourished during its growth. 

The shaft of the feather is four sided ; it is largest near 
the quUl, and gradually lessens in size to the end ; it is 
shghtly bent, to adapt it to the shape of the bird, covered 
with a horny substance like that of the quill, but not so 



304 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XL VIII. 

tlilck, and fiUed with a light elastic substance resembling 
pith. 

The vane or beard of the feather is composed of a num- 
ber of flat barbs or pieces, which grow from the sides of 
the shaft ; these are placed with their flat sides toward 
each other, their edges being turned upward and down- 
w^ard ; this method of placing them is the strongest that 
could be adopted, as it is these edges that strike the air 
during flight. 

In an unruffled feather the barbs or pieces of the vane 
are united together, and cannot easily be parted ; it is evi- 
dent, however, that they do not adhere by any adhesive 
matter, or the feather would feel clammy ; if these barbs 
are ruffled, they reunite when the feather is smoothed from 
the quill toward the end. This reunion is effected by the 
following beautiful contrivance : — Every barb has a row of 
very minute hooks on each side ; those on the side nearest 
the quill turn their points upward, those on the other side 
downward ; these all hook in one another, and hold the 
barbs together ; when the feather is ruffled by any force, 
these elastic hooks are stretched apart without being bro- 
ken, and so exquisitely perfect is their adaptation to each 
other, that on being brought together, either by smooth- 
ing the feather upward between the thumb and finger, or 
by the bird preening them with its bill, they reunite ; this 
exquisite contrivance enables the bird to keep the vanes of 
the feathers, particularly those of the wings and tail, in the 
best possible condition for resisting the air in flight. That 
part of the vane nearest the quill is often formed of softer 
barbs without hooks ; this downy portion, when the feather 



FEATHERS. 305 

is in its natural situation, is next the skin of the bird, and 
serves to keep the body warm. Many birds are, in addi- 
tion, furnished, with down growing from the skin, so as to 
form a warm under clothing, the delicate and. elastic fila- 
ments of which are not hooked together like the barbs 
of feathers, but remain separate. Down is most abun- 
dant under the feathers of swimming birds, where it is re- 
quisite to prevent the water from abstracting the heat of 
their bodies ; and it is much more abundant on the under 
surface of .the body than elsewhere. The down of these 
birds is never wet, the close oily layer of feathers protect- 
ing it from the water. Some water birds, as the goose, 
pluck the down from their breasts to line their nests. 

Feathers are often modified so as to suit the wants of 
the particular species of bird. Thus birds of prey, as 
hawks and eagles, have hard, firm feathers, extremely 
strong and elastic. Owls have soft, downy feathers, so 
that they fly silently at night, and surprise their prey. In 
the ostrich, and other birds that do not fly, the barbs are 
not joined by hooks, but are loose and flowing. Swimming 
birds have their feathers close and oily, to prevent the en- 
trance of water. 

Uses to Man. — ^The coverings of birds are of great use 
to man, and form articles of commerce, ujider the names 
of quills, feathers, and down. 

Quills are chiefly used for the manufacture of writing 
pens, and are generally obtained from wings of geese, 
which, at stated times, are partially deprived of their quills 
and feathers. The quills, when pulled from the animals, 
are sorted according to their size and quality ; the smallest 



306 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XLIX. 

are sold under the name of pinions. Before tliey are sold 
for nse, quills are sometimes stained yellow. In 1855, 
nearly twenty-seven millions of foreign swan and goose 
quills w^ere imported into England, valued at about 

30,000?. 

Feathers are used in this country for stuffing beds, bol- 
sters, and pillows, &c. The most valued are obtained from 
geese, the inferior kinds from ducks, fowls, and other poul- 
try. Ornamental and colored feathers, as those of-thc os- 
trich, bird of paradise tails, the domestic cock, &c., &c., 
are much employed in personal decoration. 

Down is used in two states, either removed from the 
skin of the animal, for stuffing pillows, quilts, and other 
substances, or attached to the skin for making tippets, &c., 
in the same manner as fur. 

LESSOK XLIX. 

GLUE. 

Mamtfacture ana ZTses.— Glue is an impure variety of 
the animal substance known as gelatine. It is much used 
by carpenters, and in the various arts, as a strong cement. 
The best is obtained from the skins of animals, the small 
cuttings rejected by the currier being generally employed; 
an inferior kind is made from the sinews and hoofs of 
horses and other animals. 

These materials are first well steeped in lime water, 
which assists in removing any grease ; they are then boiled 
in water until all the soluble parts are dissolved ; the im- 
purities that rise to the surface are skimmed off; the liquor 



GLUE. 307 

is then strained, to separate the undissolved pieces of skin, 
and again boiled down until it becomes on cooling a very 
firm, hard jelly. This jelly is cut into thin, flat, square 
pieces, which are dried upon coarse netting. The 
depressions left by the network are visible on the dried 
glue. • 

When of a good quality, glue is of a rich brown color, 
semi-transparent, and without spots or clouds in its inte- 
rior ; it. should be perfectly soluble in hot water, not leav- 
ing any sediment. The solution of glue in water is, when 
cold, a jelly-hke mass, w^hich varies in firmness according to 
the quantity of glue dissolved ; even when made very firm 
it readily melts wdth heat, and in this state is used as a 
cement, being applied while hot to the substances which it 
is wished to unite ; they are pressed together, and as the 
glue becomes firm on cooling, remain cemented, although 
it is not till after some days (when the glue has become 
perfectly dry) that the joint is very firm. 

The use of glue depends on its being readily soluble in 
hot water, its adhesiveness when dissolved, and upon its 
becoming hard as it cools and dries. Its tenacity when 
used as a cement is very great ; frequently the w^ood work 
joined by it will break at some other place, and not at that 
at which it is cemented. From its solubility in water, glue 
is useless in damp situations. 

To prevent the glue from being burnt in heating, it is 
dissolved in a glue-pot, consisting of two vessels, one placed 
within the other. The outer one, wdiich is much the larger, 
is partly filled with water, while in the inner one the glue 
to be dissolved is placed. By this arrangement the glue 



308 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON L. 

cannot be overheated as long as any water remains in the 
outer vessel. 

The workmen using glue are chiefly joiners and cabinet 
makers ; a weak solution, termed size, which is usually ob- 
tained by boiling down the clij^pings of parchment, glove 
leather, &c., is mixed with whitewash, to prevent its being 
readily rubbed ofF when dry. 

Isinglass, so much used for making jellies, &c., &c., is a 
purer kind of glue obtained from the air-bladders or sounds 
of the sturgeon, and several kinds of fish ; a variety of glue 
obtained from the skins of animals is sold xxnder the name 
of gelatine^ and used for the same purpose. 

LESSOR L. 

HOEN. 

Description. — The substance known as horn is obtamed 
from many ruminating animals, as the ox, the goat, the 
shee]^, and the antelope ; the term horn is often applied to 
the antlers of animals of the stag or deer tribe, but erro- 
neously, as they consist, not of horn, but of solid bone, are 
generally branched, and are shed annually, while true horns 
are permanent. The horns of the ox, &c., are of a conical 
form, and generally somewhat curved ; they have a bony 
core in the centre, which takes its rise from the bone of the 
forehead ; this core is supplied with nerves, and also with 
vessels, by which nourishment is conveyed to the horny 
portion that surrounds it like a sheath. 

The outside horn, like the nails of the fingers, is quite 
insensible ; the tip may be cut off without giving pain \ if, 



HORN. 309 

however, the bony core is injured, it bleeds freely, and the 
animal suffers pain. The chief difference between horn and 
bone arises from the former being destitute of earthy mat- 
ter ; hence its semi-transparency. 

The horns used in the arts are obtained from various 
animals of the ox tribe, and are imported in large numbers 
from Russia, the Cape of Good Ho23e, South America, &c. 

Preparation and Uses. — Horns are prepared by first 
soaking them in water for five or six weeks ; this loosens 
the core and permits its removal; the solid part of the 
horn, near the tip, is then cut off, and used in making 
knife handles, buttons, &c. ; the remainder is softened by 
boiling water and exposure to heat ; in this state it is pre- 
pared for use by being split up with a knife, and pressed 
flat between hot iron plates. If required in thin sheets, it 
is split into layers, smoothed by scraping, and afterward 
polished. 

When prepared for combs, the horn is pressed, and made 
into the required shape by a saw and rasps. If a very 
large piece of horn is required for a comb, or any other 
article, two pieces are joined together by heating the edges 
until they are quite soft, and keeping them pressed togeth- 
er firmly until col^. 

Drinking cups are formed by moulding the hollow part 
of the horn (softened by heat) into a regular shape— it is 
then polished. A deep groove is afterward cut or turned 
near the bottom ; the cup is again softened by heat, and a 
flat piece of horn, of the proper size, forced into the 
groove. The horn contracts as it cools, and the joint is 
perfectly water-tight. 



310 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LI. 

Horns were anciently nsed in making the musical in- 
struments so called, and the name still remains ; hence we 
have the bugle horn, &c., though they are now made of 
brass and other materials. 

The waste from buffalo and ox horns is of some value, 
beinjx either used as manure, or in the manufacture of 
Prussian blue. 

The hoofs of the ox consist of a material similar to that 
forming the horn, and they are extensively employed for 
making buttons and ladies' side combs. At one comb 
manufactory near Aberdeen, in Scotland, eighty tons of 
hoofs are stated to be used for the latter purpose. 



LESSOK LI. 

norvSE HAiPw. 

Description. — ^The horse hair used in the arts is in gen- 
eral obtained from the tail and ma'ie of horses. 

The Ions: hair of the tail is woven into a kind of 
coarse cloth for sieves, also into a fabric for covering 
chairs, sofas, &c. : in the latter case the horse hair runs in 
one direction only, and threads of flax or hemp in the 
other, sufficiently firm and strong to give great strength 
to the whole. The long hairs are ai; > used to form fishing 
lines, violin bows, &c. 

The shorter hair is usually curly ; it is generally sold 
in commerce twisted into cords, which are afterward 
picked open, and the hair used for stuffing mattresses, 
chairs, sofas, &c. To fit it for this purpose it is baked 



IVOET. 311 

with a gentle heat, by which its elasticity is much in- 
creased. The short hair of the mane is also used for 
stuffing horse collars, and other inferior work. Much of 
the hair used in manufactures is imported from South 
America. 

lesso:n^ lii. 

IVOKT. 

Natural History. — Ivory is the hard, bony substance 
forming the tusks of several animals, as the elephant, hip- 
popotamus, walrus, and spermaceti whale. The chief and 
best supply of elephant ivory comes from Africa. Large 
quantities are obtained also from immense collections of 
bones and tusks of extinct species of mammoths and ele- 
phants, which are found in the banks of the northern riv- 
ers of Siberia. Some of these tusks were ten feet long, 
and weighed 186 lbs. each. The tusks found in Africa 
occasionally weigh from fifty to seventy pounds, but do 
not average quite twenty pounds each. At the low esti- 
mate of 30?. per cwt , the total value of the ivory imported 
into England, is nearly 300,000?. yearly, and above 20,000 
elephants are annually slaughtered to yield this supply. 
Elephant ivory is a white, translucent substance, mainly 
composed of the sa e materials as bone, possessing a very 
fine, close texture, in which may be observed a diamond- 
shaped network, caused by curved lines interlacing each 
other with great regularity and beauty, and giving rise to 
a pattern resembling the engine turning of a watch, ex- 
tremely hard, yet slightly compressible by great force, and 



812 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LIU. 

elastic. Cut into thin layers it has a greater degree of 
transi^arency than paper of the same thickness. 

Uses to Man. — The serai-transparency and whiteness 
of ivory, together with its fine, even surface, render it the 
best known substance for the groundwork of small delicate 
paintings, such as miniatures ; it is also employed by the 
turner for various articles, as well on account of its beauty 
and hardness, as from its being less liable to crack than 
bone. The keys of pianofortes, knife handles, chess men, 
surgical and mathematical instruments, and toys are made 
from it. The ancients esteemed it highly as a material for 
sculpture, and it is still used by the carver for small 
figures and ornamental devices. 

LESSON LIII. 

LEATHER. 

Manufacture and Uses. — Leather is a substance uni- 
versally used among civilized, and very generally among 
barbarous nations ; it is made from the skins of animals, 
which are tanned or prepared with some substance having 
the power of converting the perishable skin, that decays 
readily when wet or moist, into a lasting and comparatively 
imperishable leather. Several tanning substances are em- 
ployed, according to the kind of leather required ; that for 
the soles and upper leathers of shoes, for harness, and sira- 
lar purposes, is tanned with the aid of oak bark. The 
hides or skins, either fresh, as received from the butcher, 
or salted, as they are brought from abroad, are first scraped 
to remove any pieces of flesh or fat that may remain at- 



LEATHER. 313 

tached to the inside, and are then soaked in a mixture of 
lime and water, by which means the hair is loosened, and 
can be readily scraped off. Thus cleansed from the hair 
and flesh, they are again soaked for some days in an acid 
liquid, made by putting barley or rye flour into water and 
letting it remain till it becomes sour, or by adding a small 
quantity of oil of vitriol ; this acid solution has the effect 
of opening the pores of the skin, so that the tan can after- 
ward penetrate more readily. The hide is then placed in 
the tan-pit with oak bark and water ; first in a weak, and 
afterward in a strong solution. The process of manufactu- 
ring skin into leather is a very slow one ; to make strong 
and well-tanned leather the hides should remain in the pits 
from six to twelve, or even eighteen months ; if taken out 
too soon, the middle of the skin is not well tanned. The 
hides when removed are dried, and finally passed between 
rollers, to give them a smooth surface and render them 
firm. 

By these processes the skin is mftch altered in its prop- 
erties ; when taken from the animal it is soft and moist, 
and, when dry, brittle, and liable to crack ; it is also very 
perishable, and putrefies rapidly if kept wet ; these qualities 
render untanned skins of little use. Leather, on the con- 
trary, is flexible and soft, whether wet or dry ; it is also, if 
properly prepared, waterproof and lasting; at the same 
time it is light, and sufiiciently strong to withstand much 
wear when made into shoes, harness, &c. 

There is a mode of tanning by steam, called the " hot 

process," by which the leather is produced more rapidly 

and cheaply, but it is of very inferior quality. 
14 ^ 



314 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LIII. 

The leather required for the upper parts, of boots and 
shoes is prepared by the currier, who, by paring and rub- 
bing, renders it thinner, more flexible, softer, and capable 
of taking a jDolish ; at the same time he blackens it with 
lampblack, and oil or tallow. The skins used for upper 
leathers are calf, and the thinner skins of cows and horses ; 
while the thicker skins, and those of oxen, &c., are used for 
the soles. These skins are imported mostly from South 
America and Calcutta. 

The numerous kinds of leather, required for difierent 
purposes, are made by slight variations in the process. 

Morocco leather, for example, is prepared from goat 
skins, which are mainly imported from Switzerland and 
Mexico. The flesh and hair are scraped off* as before de- 
scribed ; each skin is then sewed up in the form of a bag, 
which is filled with water and a vegetable substance termed 
sumach ; this substance, like the oak bark, is astringent, 
and has the eflect of tanning these skins in a few hours ; 
they are then dyed, aifd rubbed with a grooved ball, in 
order to give them the ribbed aj)pearance which distin- 
guishes morocco leather ; imitation, or inferior morocco, is 
manufactured from sheep skins. Morocco leather is soft 
and very flexible, Avhile its grooved appearance renders it 
ornamental. It is frequently used for covering books and 
chairs, lining carriages, &c. 

A very strong leather is made from seal skins, and is 
used for the tops of riding and hunting boots. In Loui- 
siana the manufacture of leather from alligator skins was 
commenced some years since, and more recently a new 
source of leather has been found in the skin of the white 



LEATHER. 315 

whale, wliicli is found in the rivers emptying into Hudson's 
Bay. 

The leather which, from its softness and power of 
stretching, is usually selected for gloves and ladies' shoes, 
though called kid, is mainly prepared from the skins of 
lambs. It is tanned with alum, and, to render it as soft 
and yielding as possible, eggs and flour are used during 
the process. 

Wash, or chamois leather, is j)repared by cleansing the 
skins with lime ; they are then dried ; afterward, they are 
beaten with heavy hammers, while kept wet with oil ; 
again hung up to dry, and again beaten with the addition 
of fresh oil ; this operation is many times repeated ; lastly, 
the surplus oil is removed by soaking the skin in water 
containing pearlash ; it is ultimately dried, and it is then fit 
for use. Being very soft, wash leather is much employed 
for polishing metal articles ; and from its warmth and 
softness, it is made into under waistcoats, &c. ; it 'does 
not resist the wet, and is, therefore, unfit for outer 
clothing. 

Sheep skins are split by a machine so as to form a 
cheap kind of leather termed skiver, which is largely used 
for iDocketbooks, hat linings, common bookbinding, and 
similar purposes. At the present time the skins of the 
larger animals are split ; the outer side being employed as 
a substitute for morocco leather, and the inner for inferior 
purposes. 



316 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LIV. 



LESSON Liy. 

SOAP. 

Mcmi(facture. — All the various hard soaps are prepared 
from different kinds of fat or oil, and the alkali, soda. It 
is necessary, however, that the common soda should be 
rendered much more caustic than it is in its usual state ; 
this is done by boiling it with fresh burnt lime, which, act- 
ing chemically on the soda, greatly increases its caustic 
powers. The soda thus prepared and dissolved in water 
forms what is termed the lye or ley of the soap boiler. 

White hard soap is manufactured in the following man- 
ner : — Into an iron vessel, heated by steam, a large quan- 
tity of fatty material is placed ; into this a quantity of the 
ley is poured. The mixture is boiled for some time, and 
frequently stirred, during which time the tallow unites with 
the soda of the ley, and forms a viscid liquid ; a strong so- 
lution of salt is then added, which causes the immediate 
separation of the water and the ley ; this is pumped away, 
and a stronger ley being added, the operations are repeat- 
ed until the w^hole of the grease is converted into soap. 
It is now submitted to another process called " fitting," 
which consists in boiling it in weak ley or water until the 
impurities settle to the bottom. The contents of the boiler 
are then left to cool and settle for two or three days. In 
order to harden the soap it is removed from the boiler and 
poured into large pans ; when cold it becomes a solid mass, 
which is cut up by wires into bars. 



SOAP. 317 

When scented and cast in small cakes, it is sold as 
"Windsor soap. 

Yellow soap is made in the same way, with the addition 
of a portion of resin, which gives the peculiar smell and 
bitter taste by which it is distinguished, but it adds to its 
solubility, and to its power of forming a lather in water. 

Fancy or toilet soaps are prej^ared from a great variety 
of materials, as palm, olive, castor, and spermaceti oils, 
mutton tallow, and lard. The well known Castile soap is 
made with olive oil and soda, while the Windsor soap re- 
quires mutton tallow. 

Soaps are colored by mixing mineral paints into the 
melted mass, as vermilion for pink, ochres for the brown, 
&c. 

In marbling fancy soaps, the paint is mixed with olive 
oil or soap, and a small portion, taken up on a palette knife, 
is moved about in the melted mass. 

All the various soaps are soluble in water, forming 
semi-transparent solutions ; when moist or dissolved, soap 
has a peculiar feeling, distinguished by the term soapy. 
The great use of soap depends upon its solubility, and 
upon its power of rendering grease and dirt soluble in 
water, without exerting any corrosive action ; a w^eak so- 
lution of caustic alkali would act more powerfully in 
cleansing, but at the same time it would, like the wash- 
ing powders in general use, destroy or materially injure 
the linen and other fabrics with which it might be 
brought in contact. 

Soap is sometimes found as a natural product. In Cal- 
ifornia a small shrub grows abundantly which is generally 



318 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LV. 

used for soap, and is even preferred to the artificial variety. 
Tlie bulbous root of this plant is dug up, stripped of its 
husks, and rubbed upon the clothes in the water. Several 
other plants have been found in various parts of the world 
which serve the same purpose. 

LESSOIsT LV. 

SPONGE. 

Natural History. — Sponges are animal substances, 
which are found in marine and fresh w^aters in various 
parts of the world. The two principal varieties met with 
in commerce are known as Turkey and West Indian, the 
former coming from the Mediterranean, the latter, which 
is much coarser, from the Bahamas Banks and coast of 
Florida. The inhabitants of the Greek Islands, from 
whence the best sponges are obtained, are trained to dive 
for sponge from their childhood ; — to quicken their de- 
scent they use a large heavy stone, which is attached to 
the boat by a rope ; they seldom remain under vv'ater so 
Ions: as two minutes at one time. Some of the coarser 
kinds of sponge are obtained by dredging the bottom of 
the ocean. Sponge is a very light, soft, compressible, 
highly elastic material ; on examination with a microscope 
it is found to consist almost entirely of horny elastic fibres, 
which are so arranged as to form an infinite number of 
small tubes that open on the outer surface of the sponge, 
and communicate internally with larger tubes formed in 
the same manner. 

During the life of the animal these tubes are lined with 



TORTOISE SHELL. 319 

a soft gelatinous flesh. The animal has the power of caus- 
ing strong currents of water to flow out of the larger aper- 
tures, its j)lace being supplied by what passes in through 
the smaller pores ; this action is always going on, and 
while the water is so passing, the requisite food is with- 
drawn for the support of the animal. When removed 
from the water this soft flesh drains away, the elastic 
fibrous framework or sponge remaining. In some varie- 
ties the fibres of the sponge are flinty in their texture ; 
such are, of course, useless in an economical point of view. 
Uses. — The use of sponge as a material for washing, 
<S:c., depends on its porosity and elasticity ; the first quality 
enables it to absorb water with great rapidity. This is 
readily forced out by pressure, and on being removed, the 
elasticity of the fibres causes the sponge to resume its 
former size, the tubes being again ready to receive aL^ 
liquid with which they may be placed in contact. 



lesso:n' lvi. 

TORTOISE SHELL. 

Natural JBCistory, — ^The tortoise shell of commerce is 
chiefly obtained from the back shell of two species of sea 
tortoises or turtles, a native of the seas of the torrid zone, 
the best being furnished by the hawksbill turtle. • As in 
the other animals of the order to which they belong, these 
turtles are enclosed in a bony case formed underneath by 
the expanded breastbone, and on the back by the flattened 
ribs and spine ; on the latter bony arch grow the scales of 



320 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LVI. 

tortoise shell. Five large scales, or " plates," as they are 
.termed, are taken from the centre of each shell, and four 
from each side; there are also twenty-five small ones at 
the edge. These plates are thick in proportion to the size 
and age of the animal, and overlap one another to a great 
extent. 

The scales arc removed from the bony arch by heating 
it over a fire ; this process loosens them, and they are 
easily separated by a knife. The value of the rough shell 
is very considerable, the best being worth about three 
guineas a pound. It is frequently injured by barnacles 
and other shell fish, which fix themselves to the turtle 
while alive. 

Manufacture and Uses. — ^Tortoise shell is manufactured 
in a similar manner to horn, a substance which it closely 
resembles. It is first softened by boiling in salt and wa- 
ter, and then pressed flat until co' , it is rendered smooth 
and of uniform thickness by scraping and filing ; and if 
larger pieces are required than can be obtained from sin- 
gle plates, two or more are united together. The pieces 
to be joined are sloped off to the distance of about a quar- 
ter of an inch from the edge. The margins are so placed 
as to overlap one another, and, after being pressed togeth- 
er by an iron clamp, the whole is placed for some time in 
boiling water ^ by this means the two pieces become so 
perfectly united that the joint cannot be seen. The filings 
and powder of the various processes are not lost ; they are 
collected and placed in metal moulds, and by warmth and 
pressure are formed into any sha^^e that may be desired. 
As heat darkens the tortoise shell, and greatly lessens its 



WHAI.EBONE. 321 

beauty, it is usually cut into the required patterns by drills 
and saws, and not moulded like horn. 

In making combs, in order to economize the shell, two 
are often formed out of one piece ; the teeth of one being 
cut out of the spaces between those of the other. Besides 
its use for combs, boxes, &c., tortoise shell is used for in- 
laying and ornamenting tables, cabinets, &c. : for this pur- 
pose it is cut into thin sheets, and a bright metal is placed 
beneath, which, shining through the semi-transparent shell, 
gives the article a very ornamental aj^pearance. 

LESSON LVII. 

WHALEBONE. 

Natural History. — ^The substance termed whalebone is 
not, as its name might m to imply, obtained from the 
bones of the animal, but it forms a substitute for teeth in 
the Greenland whale, and some other species that nearly 
resemble it. 

The plates, or blades of whalebone, which are usually 
about three hundred in number in each side, are arranged 
along the sides of the upper jaw, occupying the usual situ- 
tion of the teeth in other animals. Each plate is flat, and 
they are ranged with these flat sides parallel to each other 
across the jaw. The edges are formed of coarse, loose 
fibres, and are turned toward the mside of the mouth, so 
that the whole together form a sort of strainer, the lower 
part of which is received into the hollow of the large and 
spoon-shaped lower jaw. 

This apparatus is the only means which the whale pos- 
14* 



322 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON LVII. 

sesses of securing its food; for although this creature 
attains the immense length of from fifty-five to sixty-five 
feet, and a girth of thirty or forty feet, with a weight 
equalling that of two hundred oxen, it feeds entirely on 
the small pulpy animals that float in countless multitudes 
in the Avater of the Arctic seas. In order to secure these, 
it swims with considerable rapidity, its mouth being open ; 
the water rushes in at the fore part, where there are no 
plates of whalebone, and passes out at the sides, after 
having been strained through the fringe or filter of 
whalebone, which allows the water to escape, but retains 
the food. 

The length of the blades varies considerably with the 
size of the animals, and the part of the jaw from which 
they are taken ; the longest are usually about ten or 
eleven feet, and the quantity obtained from a full-sized 
whale is about one ton. 

The surfaces of the blades are formed of a firm, com- 
l^act, fibrous substance, which can be readily split in the 
direction of its length ; this substance is tough, strong, 
very elastic, and capable of receiving a high polish ; the 
color varies from black to a dusky gray or white. Be- 
tween the two surfaces or sides of these blades there is a 
layer of coarse, fibrous material, and, as before stated, the 
inside edge and lower end of each blade form a coarse, 
fibrous fringe. 

Uses. — Whalebone is prepared by boiling it for some 
hours in water ; this renders it soft, and more readily cut ; 
on cooling, it becomes harder and darker than before. Its 
uses greatly depend on its extreme elasticity ; split into 



COBAL. 323 

fibres, it is employed in the place of bristles for making 
coarse brooms and brushes ; it is also used in large quanti- 
ties for the stretchers of umbrellas and parasols ; the whiter 
pieces, cut into thin strips, are sometimes platted into bon- 
nets, and, after having been dyed, into artificial flowers ; it 
is also employed for stays, brushes, whip handles, canes, 
and the manufacture of hair cloth. The waste shavings 
are employed as a stufiing material for upholsterers, the 
refuse going to the farmers for manure. 

A large quantity of artificial whalebone is now used for 
umbrellas and parasols. It is made from the inner portion 
of the common cane, which is steamed, and then impreg- 
nated with a fluid containing shellac ; this renders it as 
elastic as whalebone. 

LESSON^ Lvm. 

COKAL. 

Corals are the secretions made by one of the lowest 
class of animals, called polypi, inhabiting the de^ ; they 
sometimes assilme the forms of branches of the most beau- 
tiful appearance ; sometimes they resemble beads strung in 
a necklace, while others j)resent a more consolidated mass ; 
but all are perforated with pores more or less minute, 
which are the habitations of the little architects. 

Among the various phenomena of the natural world, 
there are perhaps none more calculated to excite astonish- 
ment and admiration than the vast coral reefs that rise up 
from the deep, and at times even constitute islands. They 
are produced from a calcareous matter which exudes from 



324 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LYIII. 

the coral polyp, and hardening, forms at once its habita- 
tion and its mausoleum. This creature is of the class of 
zoophytes, the lowest grade of animal life, the link be- 
tween the animal and the vegetable kingdom. They w^ork 
only under water, so that the coral reefs never rise above 
the level of the sea ; and when the tide retires, the rock 
appears dry, compact, rugged, and perforated ; but when 
the returning waters wash its sides, a most interesting spec- 
tacle of active life is presented, countless myriads of va- 
rious shapes and colors protrude themselves from the ori- 
fices, and the whole edifice seems teeming with life and 
animation. 

The coral ceases to grow in height when the polyp is 
no longer exposed to the washing of the sea ; the. work is 
then commenced at the sides, and other parts rise in suc- 
cession, till they reach the same height, and form a level 
surface at the toj), with steep precij)itous sides. In this 
manner, and by such insignificant agents, atom deposited 
upon atom, the solid rock is at length produced ; upon this 
the sea deposits sand, mud, and decayed seaweed ; these 
prepare for mosses and lichens, which in theic turn produce 
a soil for more perfect vegetation ; till at last the island 
thus formed becomes a fit residence for man. 

As these rocks are constructed beneath the surface of 
the sea, they present no beacon to warn the mariner of 
their existence, and thus render navigation in those seas 
in which they abound exceedingly dangerous. 



WAX CANDLES. 325 

LESSON LIX. 

WAX CANDLES. 

Wax candles are manufactured from two kinds of wax 
— animal and vegetable. Beeswax is a substance secreted 
by bees in their bodies, and of which they construct their 
cells. For the methods of obtaining the wax, see the les- 
son on " Beeswax." 

The insect wax of China is the product of a small 
white insect, which deposits it upon the trees on which it 
feeds. 

Of the vegetable waxes, the Japanese, the palm wax of 
Kew Granada, and the myrtle wax of the United States, 
are the principal. Of these the myrtle or barberry wax is 
used most extensively, and is becoming an important arti- 
cle of commerce. 

The Japanese and myrtle wax are obtained from berries, 
and the palm wax from bark. 

Wax candles are generally made by pouring the melted 
wax over the wicks, and rolling them, during the process 
and at its close, between two marble slabs, in order to give 
them shape. Moulds of glass encased in gutta percha 
are sometimes used. 

LESSON^ LX. 

SHELLAC. 

Shellac is a substance produced by a little insect called 
coccus lacca, and is deposited on the small branches of the 
Indian fig tree, for the protection of its eggs. It dis- 



326 FIFTH STEP. — LESSOX LXI. 

charges the gum from its o^Yn body, and forms it into 
cells, m each of which is placed an egg. When the eggs 
are hatclied the yomig grub pierces through the viscid 
substance which enclosed it, and flies away ; and the ma- 
terial provided for a Httle insect's well-being becomes a 
valuable article of commerce.* The lac is first sold on the 
sticks, when it is called stick lac j but after it has been 
purified and formed into thin sheets or cakes, it is called 
shellac. Its color varies from orange to dark reddish 
brown, and has a shining lustre. Before the discovery of 
the cochineal dye, shellac was much used by the dyers of 
Prussia and Holland in forming their celebrated crimson 
dyes. It is the principal ingredient in seahng wax and 
varnish, and is employed in japanning. Its usefulness 
arises from its being fusible, soluble, and adhesive. 

LESSON LXI. 

BUTTER. 

Butter is prepared from the milk of the cow. "When 
milk has been allowed to stand a few hours, a thick, rich 
substance, called cream^ rises to the surface. This is 
skimmed off, and by being briskly agitated, is converted 
into butter. The instrument by which this operation is 
performed is called a churn. There is another substance 

* The children would be interested in i-ecollecting many instances of 
this primary and secondary uses of substances, and their attention might 
be directed to a perception of the difference between man's work and that 
of the lower creatures ; the latter led by instinct, the former by reason 
and experience, resulting in discovery. 



CHEESE. 327 

found in the churn besides butter ; it is called huttermilTc^ 
and when fresh is considered by many a refreshing drink. 
This is very carefully separated from the butter by " work- 
ing" it either by hand or a wooden ladle ; in dairies where 
large quantities are made, a machine is used for pressing 
the buttermilk from the butter. The butter jDrepared for 
winter store is salted, and jDacked in barrels and tubs. 
The place Avhere the milk is kept is called a dairy^ and 
great care is taken to keep it free from odors of every 
description. 

LESSON LXII. 

CHEESE. 

Cheese is prepared from milk which is coagulated or 
curdled, by mixing it with a liquor called rennet ; the curd 
thus formed is a white, solid substance ; this is sepa- 
rated from the lohey or watery j)articles of the milk, and 
then pressed and dried. Large and rich cheeses often re- 
quire to be bound with strong linen cloth to prevent their 
bursting in the drying process. Rennet is made by steep- 
ing the inner membrane of a young calf's stomach in wa- 
ter. This is salted, dried, and kept for some time before 
using. A color is sometimes given to cheese by saffron, or 
by a substance called annato^ which is the seed vessel of a 
shrub growing in the West Indies. The latter ingredient 
is so often adulterated with red lead, which is poisonous, 
that its use is generally abandoned. 



328 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXIII. 



LESSOISr LXIII. 



FELT. 



Felt is the substance of which hats are made. It is 
comj^osecl of hairs ; those of the rabbit are chiefly used 
by hatters. The ojDeration of felting depends upon a pe- 
cuUar construction in all hairs, which, however smooth 
and even they may appear, have in reality a tiled or scaly 
texture on the surface. The scales are so placed that they 
yield to the finger, if drawn along the hair from the root 
to the point, but present a resistance when moved in a con- 
trary direction. In consequence of this peculiarity, if the 
hair be seized in the middle between two fingers and 
rubbed, the root will gradually recede, and the point will 
approach the fingers, exhibiting a progressive motion to- 
ward the root ; the imbricated surface preventing all mo- 
tion in the opposite way. From this property hairs, when 
beaten or pressed together, begin to move in the direction 
. of the root, and are disposed to catch hold and twist round 
each other, and thus" to cohere and form a continuous mass, 
which is called felt. It is in consequence of this tendency 
to felt that woollen cloths increase in density, and contract 
in dimensions by being washed ; and also that they do not 
ravel out when cut. 

This material was formerly made by hand. By this 
process a man was occupied a day in making four or five 
hat " bodies," as they are called before the " sizing " and 
*' shaping " is done. Machinery is now employed by which 
three men and a boy- can make four hundred in a day. The 



TEXTILE OK WOVEN FABRICS. 329 

rabbit's far used in this manufacture is principally imported 
from the German States of Europe. 

TEXTILE OR WOVEN FABRICS, AND THEIR 
MATERIALS. 

Introduction. — The materials for our clothing are de- 
rived both from the animal and the vegetable kingdoms ; 
as, however, the processes these materials undergo in the 
course of manufacture are very similar, it has been thought 
desirable to describe them under one head, and to give, at 
the same time, a short account of spinning and weaving. 

The process of spinning consists in twisting the loose 
fibres of cotton, flax, Avool, or other fibrous material, into 
threads fit for the use of the weaver, and is one of the 
greatest antiquity ; it is alluded to by Moses in Exodus 
XXXV, 25, and was not then spoken of as a new art. Origi- 
nally, it w^as performed with a distaff and spindle, the for- 
mer being a stick about a yard in length, with a knob or 
enlargement near one end ; the flax or other substance to 
be spun (having been previously combed so as to lay the 
fibres parallel) was loosely twisted around it ; thus charged, 
the distaff was held under the left arm, and some of the 
fibres were pulled out by the right hand, and twisted into 
a thread ; this thread was wound upon the spindle, a rod 
of wood about a foot in length, having a notch at one end, 
in which the thread could be secured ; to this spindle, a 
piece of metal or stone was attached, to increase its weight 
and enable the spinner to keep it twirling round as it hung 
from the thread, while a fresh supply of fibres was pulled 



330 FIFTH STEP. TEXTILE FABRICS. 

out from the distaff; when a sufficient length of thread was 
spun to permit the spindle to reach the ground, the thread 
was removed from the notch, wound on the spindle, fast- 
ened by being again secured to the notch, and a new 
length commenced. This process of spinning was super- 
seded by the spinning wheel, in which contrivance the cot- 
ton or other substance, after having been combed or carded 
so as to straighten the fibres and lay them perfectly paral- 
lel, is attached to a spindle that is made to revolve with 
great rapidity, by a strap of leather, which also passes 
around a large wheel turned by the hand or foot of the 
s^^inner. 

At the present time the spinning wheel is very rarely 
seen, all the varieties of cloth being now woven from 
thread spun by the aid of powerful and very complicated 
machinery, which acts on the same principle as the spin- 
ning wheel, but is far too intricate to be understood with- 
out diagrams and a much longer description than falls 
within the plan of the present work. 

"Weaving, or the art of making cloth by the interlace- 
ment of threads, has also been practised from the earliest 
times. It is in all probability older even than spinning, for 
rushes and the fibrous stems of plants were probably woven 
together into a sort of coarse matting, such as is now used 
by some of the least civilized nations, long before the 
twisting or spinning together of fibres to form threads 
was had recourse to ; however this may be, representa- 
tions of hand looms for weaving arc found upon the 
tombs of the ancient Egyptians, constructed on precisely 
the same plan as those in use at the present day, and 



COTTON. 331 

these paintings were probably made in the times of the 
patriarchs. 

If we examine any piece of plain woven material, as 
cahco, silk, or canvas, we find a number of parallel threads 
running the whole length of the piece of cloth ; these form 
the warp, and those which pass across them at right angles 
in the direction of the width of the cloth, form the weft, 
the threads of these pass alternately over and under those 
of the warp ; in reality, there is but one thread of weft, 
which is doubled back at the edge of the cloth, and re- 
turns, passing over those threads it jmssed under before, 
and under those which it previously passed over; the 
arrangement of the threads being similar to that which is 
produced in darning, when that operation is performed to 
fill up the vacant space in a worn stocking. 

The hand loom is still used occasionally, but is rapidly 
giving place to larger instruments worked by steam power, 
in which all the various processes in weaving are performed 
by means of machinery. The larger machines are known 
by the name of power looms. 

LESSON" LXIV. 

COTTON. 

This extremely valuable substance, wnich is now raised 
in such abundance as to furnish the cheapest and most ex- 
tensively used clothing, is produced in the seed vessels of 
the cotton plant, of which there are many varieties ; some 
are herbaceous annual plants, growing from eighteen to 
twenty-four inches high ; others, shrubs, about the size of 



332 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LXIV. 

our currant bushes, and of from two to ten years' dura- 
tion ; while a third kind attain the growth of small trees, 
of an altitude of from twelve to twenty feet. 

The leaves of the cotton plant are of a bright dark 
green color, deeply divided into five lobes ; the flowers are 
large and showy, of a bright sulphur or lemon color, and 
closely resembling in appearance and botanical structure 
those of the single hollyhock; each flower is succeeded 
by a triangular, three-celled seed vessel, which attains the 
size of a small walnut, and, Avhen ripe, bursts open from 
the swelling of the cotton contained in the three cells ; 
the seeds, which are rather larger than those of grapes, 
are enclosed in the cotton wool, which adheres very firm- 
ly to them. One variety of cotton, cultivated in China 
and some parts of America, has a yellow tint ; this tint it 
preserves when Avoven into the fabric called nankeen. 

The cotton plant is largely cultivated in India, China, 
the United States, West Indies, on the shores of the Medi- 
terranean, and, in short, in almost all the warmer parts of 
the world ; it flourishes readily in soils too poor for the 
growth of grain and other crops, and succeeds well in 
moderately dry seasons. It is cultivated in the Southern 
States from the seed which is sown by hand in March and 
April. 

The cotton, when perfectly ripe, is gathered by women 
and children, the seeds and w^ool being picked out of the 
pod ; it is dried in the sun, and is then ready for the re- 
moval of the seeds. This was formerly done by hand, but 
a more rapid process is now adopted. The cotton is placed 
in a box, one side of which is formed of stout parallel 



COTTON. 333 

wires, placed about one eighth of an inch apart ; by the 
side of this box is a roller, carrying a number of circular 
saws, with curved teeth, which project through the wires 
into the box. On the roller being made to revolve, the 
teeth of the saws drag the 'cotton through the wires, the 
seeds remainmg behind ; after being thus separated, the 
cotton is powerfully compressed into bags, and is ready 
for transport to various manufacturing countries. 

The spinning and weaving of cotton into calicoes and 
other fabrics are now almost entirely accomplished by 
means of machinery, moved either by steam or water 
power. The fibres of the cotton are first separated from 
each other, and cleared from dust, by means of a contriv- 
ance called a willow, a machine formed of rollers, in which 
iron spikes are fixed ; these are made to turn round rapidly, 
and tlie fibres are thus separated, and then laid parallel 
by the carding machine, in which they are passed between 
two brushes (or cards, as they are termed) made with iron 
wire ; thus prepared, they are transferred to the machines, 
which spin them into yarn, or thread, fit for the use of 
the weaver. The strong and firm material known as sew- 
ing cotton consists of several yarns twisted together. 

In order that the cotton manufacture may be success- 
fully carried on in any particular district, it is essential, first, 
that it should be situated where fuel is cheap, if steam 
power is used, or on rapidly descending streams, if 
the machinery is driven by water power ; second, that it 
should be as near as possible the country from whence 
the cotton is principally brought ; third, that there should 
be easy means of communication with seaports and other 



334 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXV. 



P 



parts of the country. These several conditions are a 
fulfilled in actual localities of the cotton manufacture. In 
England, the Lancashire and Cheshire, and in Scotland, 
the western portion of the central coal fields are its seats. 
England obtains her greatest and earliest supply of cotton 
from America ; and the coal fields on which the cotton is 
manufactured are to the west of Britain. 

LESSON LXV. 

FLAX. 

The fibre of the flax plant has been employed as a ma- 
terial for clothing from very remote times ; it was in com- 
mon use among the Egyptians. In Gen. xli, 42, we read 
that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine linen. Re- 
presentations of flax, and of its difi'erent stages of manu- 
facture abound amongst the paintings on the Egyptian 
tombs, and the various specimens of mummy cloth hitherto 
examined have been formed entirely of this substance. 

It is produced extensively in Russia, the United States, 
and Ireland, but the best flax in the world is found in Hol- 
land and Belgium. Flax is used in the manufacture of 
linen sheetings, shirtings, handkerchiefs, table linens, and 
some kinds of lace and edgings. 

The variety of flax most commonly cultivated is an an- 
nual, with slender, green, herbaceous stems, about two feet 
in height, bearing small, narrow pointed leaves, destitute 
of stalks, and crowned by a number of elegant blue 
flowers, each of which is succeeded by a globular seed-ves- 
sel, containing ten flat oblong seeds of a dark brown color. 



FLAX. 335 

The flax plant is cultivated as well for the sake of its 
seeds, which are the well known " linseed " of commerce, 
as for the valuable fibres yielded by the stem ; when the 
latter are the principal objects of cultivation, the plants are 
sown thickly, so as to cause the stems of the crowded 
plants to run up high ; on the contrary, when the seeds are 
required, the j)lants are sown less thickly, and allowed to 
remain a longer time in the ground before they are gath- 
ered. When ripe, the leaves of the plant fall off and the 
stems turn yellow ; the flax is then pulled by hand, care- 
fully dried in the sun, and either stacked under cover, or 
deprived of its seeds at once by pulling the tops of the 
stems through a coarse iron comb, fixed perpendicularly in 
a block of wood ; the seed vessels, being too large to pass 
through the teeth of the comb, are torn off. 

The seeds of the flax plant thus obtained are extremely 
valuable to man ; they are known, as before observed, un- 
der the name of linseed, and, when pressed, yield a very 
useful oil. 

The stems of the flax, freed from the seeds, undergo a 
series of processes to prepare them for the use of the 
weaver ; they are first steeped in shallow pools of water 
until partially rotted, to cause the fibres of the bark (the 
only jDart used in weaving) to separate readily from each 
other ; they are then usually exposed to the action of the 
sun and air by spreading them out on the grass for about a 
fortnight ; the central woody portion of the stem, which 
has been rendered brittle by steeping, is then removed by 
an instrument termed a brake, the simplest form of which 
consists of a long slit in a block of wood, with a wooden 



336 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXVI. 

sword fitting loosely into it ; a bundle of flf" is laid across 
the slit and forced into it by the sword ; the brittle, woody 
j^art of the stem, is broken by the bending to which it is 
thus subjected. The brake in general consists of three or 
more swords fitted into one handle ; these pass into a cor- 
responding number of slits, and break the stem with great 
rapidity ; the broken woody jDortions are readily separated 
from the tough uninjured fibres either by beating with a 
short staff, or by rubbing out with the hand. 

To render the flax fit for the purposes of the spinner, it 
is next hatchelled, a process necessary to lay the fibres par- 
allel, and separate those which, from their shortness, are 
not used. The hatchel may be compared, to a brush 
formed of sharply pointed needles instead of bristles ; it is 
fixed on a low stand, with the points upward ; the work- 
man, taking a bundle of flax in his hand, throws it on to 
the hatchel, and drawing it toward himself through the 
teeth, the long fibres become parallel, while the short 
broken ones are retained by the instrument ; these latter 
form the well known substance called tow. At the pres- 
ent time these processes are very extensively performed by 
machinery. 

After hatchelling, the flax is fit for the use of the spin- 
ner ; nearly all the flax now used in this country is spun by 
machines, the spinning wheel being rarely seen. 

LESSON LXVI. 

HEMP. 

The plant yielding the hemp of commerce is an annual, 
the native country of which was probably the East, but it 



HEMP. 337 

is now extensively cultivated in most parts of the world ; 
the stem is simple or mibranched, and rises to a height 
of about five or six feet, bearing numerous leaves, each 
divided into a number of narrow pointed leaflets, deeply- 
notched at the margin ; the whole plant is covered with 
stiff hairs, which give it a peculiar harshness to the 
touch. 

The flowers are of two kinds, barren and fertile ; these 
grov/ on distinct plants, and are green and inconspicuous ; 
the plant bearing the barren or male flowers is of quicker 
growth than that which bears the female or fertile, and 
rises several inches higher ; by this means the fertilizing 
powder that it produces is more readily scattered over the 
fertile plants ; the flowers of the latter plants are succeed- 
ed by the small seed-like fruits enclosed in the green cup 
of the flower ; these are collected and sold under the name 
of hemp seed ; this seed, when crushed in a press, yields a 
large quantity of oil, much used in the preparation of var- 
nishes, and occasionally employed in the formation of some 
kinds of soap. 

Hemp seed, being extremely nutritious, is much sought 
after, by birds, and frequently given to those kept in con- 
finement. The plant, when grown in tropical climates, 
possesses a peculiar narcotic power, and an extract of the 
leaves, when swallowed or smoked, produces intoxication ; 
it is employed for this purpose by the inhabitants of some 
parts of the East, to whom the use of wine is forbidden by 
the Mohammedan religion. 

Hemp is chiefly cultivated for the sake of its fibres, 
which are very tough and flexible, and particularly adapt- 
15 



338 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXVI. 

ed for the manufacture of coarse, strong fabrics, such as 
canvas, sail cloth, sacking, as well as for making twine, 
cordage, ropes, and cables; the quantity used for these 
purposes is extremely large ; from 20,000 to 30,000 tons 
are annually exported from Russia to English and Ameri- 
can markets alone. 

English hemp is chiefly woven into coarse sheeting, and 
into the cloth called huckaback, of which coarse towels are 
made. 

Hemp is most profitably cultivated in a rich, light soil, 
the coarseness and strength of the fibres depending on the 
amount and the richness of the manure. When required 
for the use of the weaver, it is, like flax, sown broadcast ; 
the stems are in consequence crowded, and rise higher ; 
they are also less coarse than when the plants are sown in 
drills at a greater distance apart. The full-grown plants 
are pulled up by the roots, those bearing barren flowers 
beinc: first selected : the fertile ones are left some weeks 
later to ripen their seeds, which are readily rubbed out by 
the hand. After the plants are gathered, the tops and 
roots are cut off in the fields, to be left as manure, and the 
stems, tied up in bundles, are placed in water ; this rots 
the woody and useless parts, and leaves the fibres in a state 
in which they can be more readily separated. This pro- 
cess, which is termed rotting, renders the water poisonous, 
and occasions a very ottensive odor. WJien it is com- 
pleted, the hemp is dried, and the woody portion, broken 
by hatchelling, is removed, as described under the head 
of flax ; after this 't is ready to be spun into yarn for 
weaving. 



stLK. 839 

Hemp is largely used for the formation of string, cord- 
age, &c., the fibres being twisted so as to unite firmly to- 
gether. This process was formerly performed by hand ; 
the spinner took a bundle of hatchelled hemp and wrapped 
it around his waist ; he then drew out a few fibres, and 
twisting them together, fastened them to a hook, which 
was twirled round with great rapidity by a large wheel 
generally turned by a boy ; the spinner walked backward 
from, the hook, and as he did so the twisting yarn drew 
out additional fibres from the bundle round his waist, 
while with his hand he regulated the number of these 
fibres, and caused the yarn to be of uniform size ; the yarns 
so made were again twisted into strands ; three of these 
strands form a rope, and three ropes united make a cable. 
Horse power wa-s employed in twisting the ropes and ca- 
bles. Steam machinery now performs all these operations, 
from the hatcheUing of the hemp to the twisting of the 
rope or cable. 

LESSON LXYH. 

SILK. 

• The formation of raw silk, and the amount, have been 
described under the head of the silkworm moth, and it 
remains only to trace its further progress into spun silk, 
adapted for the use of the weaver and the sempstress. 
The hanks of raw silk, having been washed in warm water, 
are wound upon bobbins or reels ; this is* accomplished by 
a winding machine, the efiect produced by this machinery 
being the same as when a skein of thread is held on the 



340 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXVU. 

outstretched hands of one person and wound on a reel by 
another. The silk is then twisted, or thrown^ as it is 
termed, so as to unite several filaments together into a 
single yarn, and for the stouter threads several yarns are 
again twisted together, or doubled ; the tendency of the 
filaments to untwist after being twisted is counteracted 
by exposure to steam, which gives the threads a perma- 
nent set. 

The only silk fabrics requiring a particular notice are 
changeable silks, satin, and velvet. Changeable silks are 
formed by having the warp and the weft of differently 
colored yarns ; a peculiar j)lay of colors is thus produced 
when the fabric is moved, or seen from different points of 
view. Satin owes its peculiar softness and lustre to the 
circumstance of its being so woven that the threads of the 
warp alone are visible, those of the weft scarcely coming 
to the upper surface ; this is accomplished by carrying the 
thread of the weft under five or six threads of the warp, 
and over one ; again under five or six threads, and over 
one, and so on across the warp ; by this means the warp 
threads alone are seen, and a rich, unbroken glossy surface 
is produced. Velvet, the soft pile of which is so peculiar, 
is formed by weaving short loops of silk into the fabric ; 
these loojDs, which stand at right angles to, and hide both 
the weft and the warp, are afterward cut open by a sharp 
instrument, and the cut ends of the silk standing up from 
the pile give rise to the peculiarly soft appearance of the 
velvet ; this arrangement may also be observed in hearth 
rugs, where the cut ends of short worsted threads rise up 
from a coarse canvas foundation. 



WOOL. 341 

Silk fabrics are manufactured mostly in England, 
France, Italy, and China. 

LEsso:Nr Lxvm. 

WOOL. 

The clothing manufactured from wool is particularly 
adapted to cold countries; not that it communicates 
warmth, but, being a non-conductOr of heat, it prevents 
that of our bodies from escaping. Wool is the hairy cov- 
ering of sheep, which has a peculiar felting property ; it is 
taken from the living animal in the summer season, by an 
operation called slieep shearing^ and in that state is called 
the fleece. The wool of the Spanish sheep is particularly 
fine ; the flocks in that country are often very large, con- 
taining as many as a thousand sheep. 

The first operation performed on the raw wool is to pick 
and sort it ; this is particularly needful, as the same sheep 
produces wool of various qualities. It is next cleansed 
from its impurities, and committed to the laool comber^ 
who, by means of iron-spiked combs of difierent degrees 
of fineness, draws out the fibres, smooths, and straightens 
them. It is then prepared for the spin7ier^ who forms it 
into threads, the more twisted of which are called icorsted^ 
and the less twisted yarn. It is then employed in the 
manufacture of every description of hosiery, stufls, carpets, 
flannels, blankets, and cloths. England manufactures so 
much woollen clothing, that it was formerly considered the 
staple commodity of the country ; and to mark its import- 
ance the Lord Chancellor sits upon a woolsack. 



542 FIFTH STEP. — MINERALS. 

MINERALS. 

GENEEAL CHAEACTEES OF MIXEEALS. 

The objects derived from the mineral kingdom afford 
one of the most obvious means of supplying material 
wealth to a country. In fact, some countries derive their 
chief importance from the abundant suj^ply of mineral 
wealth which they export to other countries less richly 
furnished than they in this particular. 

Minerals are distinguished from each other by the 
possession of certain characters, the most important of 
which will be briefly described here, in order to prevent 
repetition in speaking of the several species in detail. 

Lustre. — Many minerals possess a high degree of 
brightness, but in characterizhig them, the kind of lustre 
is more important than its degree. The most important 
varieties are — 

The metallic lustre, as in . . . . Black lead. 

Vitreous, or glassy lustre, as in . . Rock crystal. 

Resinous, or waxy lustre, as in . . Amber. 

Pearly lustre, as in . . . . Satin spar. 

When minerals are destitute of any lustre, they are 
termed dull. 

Color. — The colors of minerals are very numerous, and 
it frequently happens that several difterent tints may occur 
in the same mineral, from the mixture of small portions of 
other substances. Color, therefore, is not to be regarded 
as a character of great value in distinguishing minerals, 



MINERALS. 343 

except when it occurs in connection with metallic lustre ; 
it is then more definite, as, for example, in lead ore or ga- 
lena, which is always gray. 

Some minerals are distinguished by peculiar appear- 
ances connected with color,— such as the rainbow-like 
variety of tints found m several of those possessed of 
metallic brightness,— for example, in the copper ore, called 
from this circumstance, peacock copper ore, and the re- 
flection of a floating milky light from the interior of some 
others, which is called opalescence from the fact that it is 
very distinct in the opal. 

J?arc?72es5,-— While difierent minerals vary very much in 
their degree of hardness, this character is generally con- 
stant in the same species. Hardness is, therefore, regarded 
as of great importance in distinguishing minerals. Its de- 
gree may be readily ascertained by the ease or difficulty 
with which one mineral will scratch another. In describ- 
ing hardness, the following scale is employed : 

SCALE OF THE DEGREES OF HARDNESS OF MINERALS. 

No. 1. Yields easily to the finger nail, as for example, . Chalk. 

2. Yields with difficulty to the nail, but does not scratch a 

copper coin, .... Rock salt. 

3. Scratches a copper coin, and is also scratched by it, be- 

ing of about the same degree of hardness, . Lime spar. 

4. Not scratched by a copper coin, but not hard enough 

to scratch glass, . . • Fluorspar. 

6. Scratches glass with difficulty, and yields easily to the 

knife, ^Pa^^*^- 

6. Scratches glass easily, and yields with difficulty to the 

knife, . .... Fe^P^-^- 



344 FIFTH STEP. — MINEKALS. 



7. Does not yield to the knife, and to a fine file with dif- 

ficulty, ..... Flint. 

8. J , . . . Topaz. 

9. >• Harder than flint. •< . . . . Emery. 
10. 5 ^ . . . Diamond. 



The diamond is the only mineral of the highest degree 
of hardness, and is therefore used for cutting glass, <fec., 
the natural edges of the crystal being employed for that 
purpose. If the edges artificially made by cutting a dia- 
mond are used, they are soon worn down ; consequently 
diamond rings are much injured if employed for scratching 
glass. 

Weight, or specific gravity. — The weight of minerals, 
and, in fact, of all solid and liquid substances, is compared 
with that of water as a standard, and is termed their spe- 
cific gravity, or peculiar weight. Thus, for example, the 
weight of sulphur is almost twice that of water, flint nearly 
three times, &c. It is a more convenient and accurate 
mode of calculation to consider the weight of water as ex- 
pressed by 1,000; that of sulphur would then be 1,980; 
flint, 2,700. These numbers are termed the specific gram- 
ties of these substances. 

In the following hst, the specific gravity of several of 
the most common mineral substances is given : 

Water, ..... 1,000 

Coal, .... 1,200 to 1,500 

Clay, ..... 1,800 to 2,700 

Sulphnr, .... 1,980 

Rock salt, .... 2,250 

Granite, .... 2,G00 



MINERALS. 345 

Limestone, .... 2,250 to 2,500 

Chalk, .... 2,500 

Slate, . . . , .2,750 

Flint, . . . . 2,700 

Emery, ..... 4,000 

The specific gravity of water being taken at 1,000 
gives peculiar facilities for ascertaining the weight of any 
substance, as it so happens that one cubic foot of water 
weighs almost exactly 1,000 ounces. It follows that the 
specific gravity of any substance gives the actual weight 
of a cubic foot in ounces, sufficiently accurate for all prac- 
tical purposes. Thus, for example, the specific gravity of 
granite being 2,600, a cubic foot of it will weigh 2,600 
ounces, or 162^ lbs. ; a cubic foot of clay, in like manner, 
2,000 ounces, or 125 lbs., &c., &c. 

Those minerals which are five times heavier than water 
are mostly metallic ores, as lead or galena ore, &c. 

The following table shows the number of cubic feet in 
one ton of the undermentioned minerals: 

Sand, . . . . 23|- cubic feet. 

Gravel, 21f " 

Granite, . . . . 13^ " 

Marble, 13 " 

Chalk, . . . - . 13 " 

Form, — By far the larger number of minerals are nat- 
urally formed in determined shapes, called crystals ; when 
this is not the case, they are termed massive. Minerals, 
whether crystalline or massive, have usually a certain inter- 
nal arrangement of their particles, which causes them, 
15* 



346 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXIX. 

when broken, to separate in some directions more readily 
than in others. This is termed their cleavage ; for ex- 
ample, rock salt and lead ore invariably break up into 
cubes, &c. 

"When broken by a blow, minerals exhibit several varie- 
ties on the broken surface. This is termed their fracture^ 
and should not be confounded with the forms into which 
they cleave. 

LESSON LXIX. 

LIME. 

The substance called lime is never found pure in nature, 
owing to its great affinity for carbonic acid * and for water. 
All the earths of which lime forms the basis are called cal- 
careous, f It is the most universally diffused of all sub- 
stances, and one of the most abundant ; it is computed that 
it constitutes one eighth of the crust of the earth. In this 
distribution we have great cause to admire the wise and 
good providence of the Creator, as the utility of lime in 
various arts, in agriculture, in manufactures, and in medi- 
cine is very great. Lime, united with carbonic acid, forms 
common limestone, chalk, marble, &c. ; with sul^^huric acid, 
it constitutes gypsum or alabaster ; and with fluoric acid, 
fluor or Derbyshire spar. These are its most interesting 

* Carbon is charcoal in its purest and colorless state ; it is most abun- 
dant in the vegetable kingdom, and is chiefly obtained from wood. The 
diamond is the only pure carbon that is known. United with oxygen, car- 
bon forms carbonic acid. 

f Calcareous, from the Latin calx^ lime. 



k 



LIME. 347 

combinations with mineral substances. It enters also into 
the composition of animal matter, as shells, bones, and the 
hard coverings of insects ; our bones contain eight parts 
in ten of lime ; and the shells of birds' eggs, nine parts in 
ten. 

Pure lime is procured from chalk, or limestone, by 
means of burning. Alternate layers of calcareous earth 
and fuel are arranged in a kiln ; a fire being kindled, the 
carbonic acid and ^7ater become volatihzed, and are driven 
off, leaving the lime pure. In this state it is called quick 
lime, and is white, caustic, acrid, pungent, and infusible ; 
corroding and destroying animal matter. "When water is 
poured upon it, it swells, falls into a powder, and gives out 
great heat. This last operation is called slacking the lime. 
The water combining with the lime becomes solid, and the 
heat is occasioned by its changing from a fluid to a solid 
state, for in doing this it parts with some of its caloric. 
The uses of lime are numerous and important. It is 
formed into mortar, the cement used in building. The 
lime being slacked, is made into a paste by tempering it 
with water ; to this is added sand, and sometimes chopped 
hairs ; as it dries it becomes solid, hard, and durable. Ex- 
amples have been known of buildings a thousand years 
old, in which the mortar is as hard as the stones which it 
unites. 

Lime is used as a manure, to loosen soils which are too 
tenacious, and to render them more friable and capable of 
receiving vegetable fibres ; it also hastens the dissolution 
and putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances, of 
which mould is chiefly composed, and gives it the power 



348 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXX. 

of acquiring and retaining moisture, so necessary to the 
growth of vegetables. Lime is also employed in the man- 
ufacture of sugar, to deprive it of a portion of its acid. 
Tanners use it in removing hairs from the hides, and 
cleansing them from fat and grease ; it is used also in 
"bleachins:, and as a flux in the smelting of metals. 



LESSON LXX. 

ALUMINE, OR ARGIL. 

This substance obtained the name of alumine from its 
forming the base of common alum ; and argil,* on account 
of its being the constituent of all clays, which are there- 
fore termed argillaceous earths. The distinguishing quali- 
ties of clays are, that they have an earthy texture, give 
out a peculiar odor w^hen breathed upon, which has been 
thence called the argillaceous odor; they adhere to the 
tongue ; are never found crystallized, but sometimes slaty; 
are generally opaque, and their weight is about twice as 
great as that of w^ater. When tempered with water, most 
argillaceous substances become soft, tenacious, and plas- 
tic ; t but shrink and harden by the application of heat. 
Alumine is never found pure in nature ; but it is considered 
to be the most plentiful earth next to silex. 

Common day is a nearly equal admixture of alumine 
and silex ; it is found in most countries, and is very valu- 
able in various arts ; for these it is peculiarly fitted, as it 

* Argil, from Latin argil-/a, clay. 

f Plastic, from 7rAo(rcr-etv (plass-cni), to form. 



ALUMINE, OR AEGLL. 349 

may be moulded into any form, which it retains unchanged. 
after exposure to heat. The beds of lakes, ponds, and 
springs, are almost entirely of clay ; instead of allowing 
the filtration of water, as sand does, it forms an impenetra- 
ble bottom, and by this means water is accumulated in the 
caverns of the earth, producing those natural reservoirs 
whence springs issue and spout out at the surface. Clayey 
soils, in consequence of their absorbing and retaining 
moisture, are heavy and sticky. Clay is often used by 
the poorer classes in some countries in forming their 
cottages. 

It is the substance of which bricks and tiles are con- 
structed ; when well baked in a kiln, or in the sun, it be- 
comes very hard and durable. A proof of this is furnished 
in the existence at the present day of those mighty Egyp- 
tian j^yramids, which many sui^pose to have been the work 
of the Israelites in their bondao-e. 

Porcelain clay is that employed in china manufactories ; 
it absorbs moisture rapidly, and becomes very tenacious 
when kneaded. It is distinguished from other clays by 
the fineness of its texture and its friability. A coarser 
kind, called ^o^^er'5 clay^ is used in making common earth- 
enware. 

Another description of clay, of a plastic nature, is called 
pipe clay^ from its being used in the manufacture of pipes ; 
it is cast in a cylindrical mould, a wire being afterward 
run through it to form the hollow through which the 
fumes of the tobacco are inhaled ; when baked, it be- 
comes hard and white. This clay is also used in extract- 
ing grease out of different substances. FulUr^s earth is 



350 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON LXXI. 

another argillaceous substance, which was fornierly similar- 
ly employed. 

The soil or mould which covers our fields and gardens, 
contains more or less of these three substances, alumine, 
silica, and lime. They occur in very different proportions ; 
a mixture of all forms the best soil, each correcting and 
keeping within their due proportion the qualities of the 
other ; thus, in a clayey soil filtration is carried on by 
means of sand, while clay, on the other hand, gives consis- 
tency to a sandy soil, and lime loosens the texture of heavy 
lands, and corrects the coldness occasioned by their re- 
taining water. The fertilizing property of our soils, how- 
ever, greatly depends upon the admixture of decayed 
animal and vegetable matter. 

LESSON LXXI. 

ALUM. 

Manufacture. — The substance known as alum is a com- 
pound of alumina, or the base of clay, united with sul^^huric 
acid and a proportion of potash or ammonia. It is pre- 
pared from a dark gray slaty clay, termed alum shale, or 
alum slate. This, when exposed to air and moisture, grad- 
ually crumbles to pieces, and suffers much change in its 
character. The soluble parts are then dissolved by water; 
a solution containing potash is added; on boiling away 
the water, the alum crystallizes, — it is purified by being 
again dissolved and crystallized. Many varieties of the 
slate require to be burnt before use. This is effected by 
setting it on fire in enormous heaps, containing, in some 



ALUM. 



351 



cases, many thousand tons. Sometimes the shale possesses 
sufficient inflammable matter to bum spontaneously; in 
others, small coal or cinders are added. 

Properties. — Alum is a transparent, colorless, saline 
substance, readily soluble in eighteen times its weight of 
cold and its own weight of boiling water, the excess dis- 
solved by hot water separating in crystals as the solution 
cools. When the crystalHzation is slowly conducted, the 
crystals are regular octohedrons, but in the alum of com- 
merce they are more or less connected together and ir- 
regular in form. These crystals contain nearly half their 
weight of water, and, when heated, the alum first dis- 
soh^es in this water, which, if the heat is continued, boils 
away, leaving a dry mass— the burnt alum of the druggist. 

The taste of alum is astringent, but somewhat sweet- 
ish ; when swallowed, it has an astringent action ; and, 
although of value as a medicine, is unwholesome when not 

required. 

jjses. In the arts alum is a substance of great value. 

It is much employed in converting skins into leather (see 
Leather) ; it is also used in paper making ; in the manu- 
facture of some kinds of candles, to harden and whiten the 
tallow; in dyeing and calico printing it is absolutely indis- 
pensable; and it is employed by paper hangers in making 

paste, &c. 

Alum is employed by bakers in the manufacture of 
wheaten bread, rendering it whiter in color, and causing 
the loaves to separate more readily. Its chief use, how- 
ever, arises from the fact that it enables inferior flour, 
which has been damaged by being harvested in wet 



352 FIFTH STEP, LESSON LXXII. 

weather, and would otherwise yield a clammy bread, to 
be made into a light, spongy loaf. Such bread is, how- 
ever, very indigestible, and produces dyspepsia. 

Linen and other cloth, steeped in a solution of alum 
and then dried, cannot be set on fire ; hence it is some- 
times used for making curtains and other fabrics incom- 
bustible. 

LESSON LXXIL 

EMERY. 

Occurrence, — Emery is found in shapeless granular 
masses, at the base of mountains, in several of the islands 
of the Grecian Archipelago. The chief supply is obtained 
from the island of Naxos, at Cape Emeri, whence its name. 
A considerable quantity, however, is procured from the 
neighborhood of Smyrna, the East Indies, and in some 
mines in Saxony. In Jersey and in England small quanti- 
ties of it are occasionally found. 

Properties. — Emery is a grayish black, or brown, 
opaque mineral, with a glistening lustre and an uneven 
fracture. Its specific gravity is about 4,000, and it "is dis- 
tinguished by its extreme hardness, inferior only to that of 
the diamond. 

Preparation. — In order to prepare emery for use, it is 
first crushed under heavy iron stampers, then ground in 
steel mills, and mixed with water ; the coarser particles 
having been allowed to subside, the water is poured off 
with the finer portions; these after a time sink, and are 
collected for use. Sometimes the emery is burnt or cal- 



KOTTEN STONE AND TRIPOLI. 353 

cined for the purpose of enabling it to be reduced to 
powder with less labor. 

Uses. — ^The use of emery depends upon its extreme 
•liardness, which enables it, when in a state of fine pow- 
der, to be used by lapidaries for grinding and polishing 
precious stones ; by cutlers, in finishing steel instruments ; 
by opticians, for polishing glasses, &c. Sprinkled over 
paper or stout calico whit;h has been previously covered 
with a layer of glue, it forms emery paper or cloth ; this 
is much employed in cleaning iron instruments and arti- 
cles of domestic use. 



LEsso:Nr Lxxm. 

EOTTEN STONE -AND TRIPOLI. 

Occurrence and Properties. — Rotten stone and tripoli 
are two minerals resembling each other, in having their 
particles in a state of very fine division. Rotten stone, 
which is found in considerable quantity in Carmarthen- 
shire, and Breconshire, South Wales, and at Ashford, in 
Derbyshire, England, is friable. It is found mixed with 
pieces of black marble, and it has recently been ascer- 
tained that an acid existing in the soil, decomposes the 
marble, thus producing rotten stone. Tripoli is so called 
from its being first found in that country. The small par- 
ticles of both are very hard ; and when the minerals are 
reduced to powder they are extensively employed in pol- 
ishing metal articles. 

Rotten stone is not found except in England. The 



354 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LXXIV. 

amount obtained yearly barely equals 400 tons ; and the 
annual value is stated at about 750^. 

Tripoli is remarkable as consisting almost entirely of 
the shelly coverings of small animalcules, their length not 
exceeding: l-3500th of an inch. 



'a 



LESSON LXXIV. 

PUMICE STONE. 

Occurrence and Properties. — Pumice is a stone of vol- 
canic origin, which is found in large quantities at Campo 
Bianco, about thirty miles from the port of Lipari ; it is 
also abundant in the island of Vulcano. Pumice is a po- 
rous stone, sufficiently light to float upon water. It is 
formed of silky fibres, which are interlaced in all directions. 
In color it is usually gray or w^hite. To the touch it is 
harsh, and, although brittle, is sufficiently hard to scratch 
glass and steel. 

Uses. — The use of pumice in the arts is entirely as a 
polishing material ; it is employed in smoothing wood, 
glass, slate, stones, marble, &c. ; by painters it is much 
used for rubbing down the roughness on old work previous 
to new painting. It is also employed in smoothing leather, 
vellum, and skins, during their manufacture ; and in some 
countries it is regularly used for smoothing the skin of the 
hands, and rubbing corns on the feet. In the East, the 
domes of temples have been built with it in consequence 
of its great lightness. 



SLATE. 355 

LESSON LXXV. 

SLATE. 

Slate is a mineral substance ; it is never found crys- 
tallized, but generally of a foliated structure ; it is either 
of a gray, blueish, or blackish color, often streaked by a 
different tint from that of the ground ; it is opaque, dull, 
compact, and brittle. It consists chiefly of alumine, with 
a small quantity of silex. It is dug out of quarries ; when 
first taken from them, it is comparatively soft, but becomes 
hard by exposure to the air. It is used for writing upon, 
for whetstones, and for roofing houses. In order to ascer- 
tain its fitness for the latter purpose, it is weighed as soon 
as it is excavated, and is then put into water for some 
days ; if after being well dried it is found to have increased 
in weight, it is laid aside as unsuitable for the purpose, the 
trial having proved that it was porous, and consequently 
absorbent. Such slate would not only allow water to pass 
through it, and so destroy the woodwork of buildings, but 
it w^ould also be liable to be covered with lichens and moss, 
in consequence of the moisture which it retains. If its 
quality is ascertained to be good, it is split into thin plates 
for roofing. The tiles are fastened to the rafters by pegs 
driven through holes, w^hich have been j^reviously made in 
them ; the edge of one is laid over the other, in the same 
manner as the scales of fishes. Slate which is dark-colored, 
compact, and solid, is the best adaj^ted for writing uj^on. 
In order to prepare the slate for this purpose, it is ren- 
dered smooth with an iron instrument, and it is then 



356 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LXXVI. 

ground with sandstone, and slightly polished. That which 
is softer and more friable, is used for pencils. 

The principal slate quarries in the United States are in 
Vermont, Xew York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. Quar- 
ries of great extent are also worked in various parts of the 
British Isles. 

The school slates, when split out from the blocks, are 
taken to the factory, where a man provided with patterns 
of the six sizes usually made, marks out upon each sheet 
such slates as it will make to the best advantasfe. An- 
other workman then cuts them out with a circular saw, 
made of soft steel, and they are dressed, smoothed, and 
polished by a third. Before machinery was applied to 
these operations they were shaved out like shingles. The 
smoothing is finished by rubbing the slate with a rag filled 
with its own dust. The slate is now washed and is ready 
for the frame. Slates are either quarried by blasting, or, 
where practicable, by splitting them off with large wedges. 



SILICIOUS MINERALS. 
LESSOE" LXXVI. 

SAND AND SANDSTONE. 

Occurrence. — Sand is a substance abundantly distrib- 
uted, forming in many places the bottom and shores of the 
ocean, and not unfrequently the beds of rivers ; on the 
surface of' the earth it often forms tracts of vast extent, 
which are usually termed deserts, such as those of Arabia 
and Africa. 



SAND AND SANDSTONE. 357 

Sand is also found in beds, or layers, alternating with 
other substances. When at the surface of the ground, 
sand forms that kind of country found in some parts of 
Europe, termed heath, which is distinguished by its sterile 
character and the nature of the plants (chiefly heath, furze, 
and ferns,) growing on it. When the grains of sand are 
cemented together into a firm mass, they form the valuable 
stone called sandstone, many kinds of which are found in 
this country, where they are extensively used for building. 
From the hardness of the grains of sand, they are also 
valuable as grind stones, mill stones, scythe stones, and 
from their porosity they are frequently employed in the 
manufacture of filters. 

The variety known as Potsdam sandstone can be quar- 
ried in slabs of any required size, and is much used for 
paving. 

Properties, — Sand consists of silica, in small rough 
grains of various sizes. When pure, it is white or color- 
less, but it is usually tinted by the admixture of other 
materials. It is perfectly insoluble in water, and infusible 
in fire. 

Uses. — Sand is a substance of great value. It is foUnd 
in all fertile soils, rendering them sufficiently porous to 
allow water to percolate and the air to gain access to the 
roots of the growing plants, and it is frequently added 
•with great advantage to heavy, clay soils. Pure sand, as 
before mentioned, is unfitted to the growth of plants. 

In artificial processes sand is used extensively; the 
whiter kinds are employed in glass making, the coarser 
in making mortar and bricks. From its infusible nature, 



358 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LXXVII. 

and the property that some kinds possess of forming a 
mass when firmly pressed together, it is used for making 
the moulds into which melted metals are poured in the 
process of casting ; and its hard, gritty nature renders it 
useful in cleaning and scouring coarse metal and other 
articles. 

LESSOR LXXVII. 

GLASS. 

3faterials. — The substances which form the basis of 
glass are sand, and one or other of the alkalies, potash, 
or soda. The purest variety of sand is obtained from 
Lanesborough, Mass. Other qualities are procured from 
various parts of the country. It is essential that the sand 
be perfectly free from colored impurities, otherwise the 
glass receives a tinge. Ked lead and litharge are em- 
ployed in certain kinds of glass, as they are found to 
render it more readily fusible and tenacious when melted. 
They have, however, the disadvantage of rendering it 
softer, and, therefore, more liable to be scratched. In 
addition to these substances, small portions of manganese, 
arsenic, borax, and other minerals, are occasionally em- 
ployed to produce more ready fusion and to remove 
color, and, in ahnost all cases, a considerable amount of 
broken glass, or cullet, as it is termed, is added. In the 
coarser kinds lime is also used in place of a dearer alkali. 

The localities of the glass manufacture are determined 
by the nearness to coal fields, and by the ease of obtaining 
the materials required ; for these reasons, it is frequei "^ 



GLASS. 359 

established in seaports. ISTewcastle, Bristol, and Glasgow, 
with Birmingham, are the chief towns in which it is car- 
ried on in England. 

It is also manufactured in different sections of our own 
country, particularly in South Boston, East Cambridge, 
and Sandwich, Mass. ; Brooklyn, N". Y., where flint glass is 
manufactured. The most important manufactories of win- 
dow glass are located in the southern part of Xew Jersey, 
about Pittsburg, Penn., and the river towns below and in 
central New York. The only manufactory devoted exclu- 
sively to plate glass, is at Lenox, Berkshire Co., Mass. 
Our best plate glass is imported from England and 
France. 

Preparation. — ^The materials, having been mixed in the 
requisite proportions, are made to unite together by expo- 
sure to a moderate heat, which is increased until they melt 
into a pasty mass, termed frit. The ingredients of flint 
glass, however, which are of the purest kind, do not 
always require to be fritted. The materials are melted 
together in large crucibles, or pots, as they are usually 
termed. These are made of the most infusible materials, 
and each pot is capable of holding about fourteen hundred- 
weight of glass. These are built into a dome-shaped fur- 
nace, v/ith openings in the sides, corresponding to the 
situation of each pot. In about forty-eight hours after 
having been placed in the furnace, the glass is in a state 
of the most perfect fusion, and is ready to be worked into 
any desired form. 

Manufacture. — As the mode of manufacture varies 
ith the kind of glass, and the purposes for which it is 



360 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXVII. 

designed, it will be described under the heads of flint, 
crown, and plate glass. 

Flint glass is formed of sand, potash, or pearlash, and 
litharge, or red lead, and is manufactured into the im- 
mense variety of articles required for domestic use, by the 
aid of a hollow tube and a few very simple tools. The 
ease with which it is worked arises from its possessing an 
extraordinary combination of properties, being excessively 
ductile and tenacious, and of so soft a consistency that it 
may be bent, blown, pressed, or extended, and, in short, 
made to assume any form which the v/ill of the workman dic- 
tates. The tube is dipped into the melted glass, and care 
is taken that the quantity collected on the end of it, is suf- 
ficient for the desired article. The mouth of the workman 
is then applied to the other end of the tube, and the glass 
is blown into a hollow form, being either placed in a mould, 
or rolled, pressed, cut, twisted, &c., so as to assume the 
form required. ISTo substance possesses in so remarkable a 
degree the plastic property. After the articles are formed, 
they are placed in the annealing oven, at a great heat, 
which is gradually diminished, by which means they lose 
that liability to crack in sudden changes of temperature 
which they would possess if cooled suddenly. 

Crown glass, which is ordinarily used for w^indows, is 
harder than flint glass. No preparations of lead are used 
in its manufacture ; it therefore requires a higher temj^era- 
ture for fusion. The materials are sand and soda, or soda 
ash, with small quantities of borax, arsenic, and manga- 
nese ; these are fritted for about four hours. On melting 
the fritted materials, a quantity of saUne matter rises to 



I 



GLASS. 361 

the top, which is skimmed off, and a considerable amount 
of broken glass, or ciillet, as it is termed, is added, and in 
about forty hours the glass is ready for working. The 
workman takes about ten or eleven pounds on the end of 
an iron tube, blows it into a large, hollow, pear-shaped 
form ; then, by pressure against a plane surface, flattens 
the part opposite the tube ; an iron rod, called a punt, is 
then dipped in the melted glass of the furnace, and at- 
tached to the centre of the flattened part, and the iron 
tube is removed by wettmg the glass around it ; the soft 
yielding glass is now carried by the punt and exposed to 
the heat of a furnace, the workman twirling it round with 
gradually increasing rapidity, which causes the hole left by 
the removal of the tube to enlarge in size, and at length 
the whole flattens out into a plane surface of four or five 
feet in diameter, of uniform thickness, except v>^here the 
iron rod is attached in the centre ; a lump is there formed 
called the hulVs eye ; the glass is then annealed, and each 
disc divided into two j^arts for the convenience of 
carriao'e. 

The dark green glass used for wine bottles is made 
without lead, and of the coarsest materials ; common river 
sand and soap-boilers' waste, consisting of lime and a 
small proportion of alkali, being usually employed. 

Plate glass is a very pure glass, capable of flowing 
freely when melted, without streaks or air bubbles. The 
materials forming it are the whitest sand, soda, small por- 
tions of lime and the minerals manganese and cobalt, to- 
gether with broken plate glass, the waste of previous 
operations. The glass, when perfectly fused, is poured 
16 



362 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXVII. 

upon an iron table of the size required, and the thickness is 
regulated by the height to which the sides of the table are 
raised. Immediately after it is poured out, the melted 
glass is flattened by having a metal roller passed over the 
upper surface ; it is then annealed for several days ; after 
this it is ground perfectly smooth by rubbing tAvo plates 
together with finely powdered flint and water between 
them ; each plate is again ground with emery powder, and 
finally joolished by a polishing powder, applied with a 
woollen rubber. 

The process of the manufacture of glass beads is inter- 
esting from its great simplicity. Tubes of glass of the 
required color are made by blowing cylinders, which are 
drawn out while still plastic to the required length. 
These tubes are cut up into very short pieces on the 
upright edge of a fixed chisel. They are then stirred over 
a furnace in a mixture of fine sand and wood ashes, heated 
to such a degree that the fragments of glass are softened, 
and lose their angular and sharp-edged form. 

Colored glasses are produced by the addition of small 
quantities of various mineral ingredients to the melted 
mass. A small quantity of soot gives a yellow color ; pre- 
parations of copper a red tint ; blue is produced by co- 
balt ; manganese gives an amethyst; green is produced 
by iron, as in the common bottle glass ; tin produces an 
opaque white, and gold an exquisitely beautiful ruby tint. 

Properties, — The peculiar properties of glass in a melt- 
ed state have been already alluded to. When solid, it is 
strikingly distinguished by its beautiful transparency, hard- 
ness, and freedom from porosity ; its lustre, which is so 



CxLASS.. 363 

characteristic that it is termed vitreous ; its being insoluble 
and incorrodible by all substances in ordinary use, even the 
strongest acids; it is brittle when in thick masses, but 
when in very thin threads it possesses an extraordinary 
degree of elasticity, which, unlike that of any other sub- 
stance, does not seem impaired by repeated bending. 

Uses. — ^The uses of glass in domestic economy are well 
known. Its employment for making vessels to hold liquids 
depends greatly on its transparency and polish, the former 
allowing the contents to be seen, and the latter enabling it 
to be readily cleaned after use. Its employment as a ma- 
terial for glazing windows depends on its transparency 
and insolubility, w^hich enable it to admit the light 
and warmth of the sun, while it excludes the wind 
and rain. 

Glass is frequently ground upon revolving wheels of 
sandstone, or pohshing slate, into small circular pieces, with 
one or both sides concave or convex ; in these forms it 
alters the direction of the rays of light which pass through 
it, either bringing them to one point or focus, or dispersing 
them. These glasses are termed lenses, and are em^^loyed 
in making optical instrumeitts — as microscopes, telescopes, 
&c., and also for spectacles. 

It is our familiarity with glass that alone renders us 
usually so insensible to the great value and exceeding 
beauty of this extraordinary substance. 



364 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXVIII. 



LESSON LXXVIII. 

MICA. 

Occurrence and Properties. — Mica is a mineral that 
possesses the property of being readily spht into exceed- 
ingly thin hiyers, which are transparent, possess a pearly 
metaUic lustre, and are flexible and elastic. The glisten- 
ing appearance of granite, and some other minerals, is due 
to the presence of small scales of this substance. 

It occurs in large masses in many parts of the world, 
especially in Siberia, Sweden, and Norway. It is also 
found in New Hampshire, and some of the other States, 
and Canada, in sufiicient quantities to be quarried for 
economical purposes. 

Uses. — The transparency and flexibility of this sub- 
stance have led to its employment as a substitute for glass, 
particularly under circumstances where it is exposed to 
violence ; hence it has been used in. Russia for vessels of 
w^ar, in which glass windows were apt to be broken by 
the concussion caused by firing the guns. As it is not 
altered by cxjjosure to a very'high temperature, it is not 
unfrequently used to form transparent doors to stoves and 
lanterns, and it is now largely employed to form covers 
over gaslights, to protect the flame from draughts of air, 
as well as to prevent the smoke rising to and soiling the 
ceiling. 



GEANITE. 365 



LESSON" LXXIX. 

GKANITE. 

Granite is a compound rock, formed by an aggregation 
of grains of quartz, felspar, and mica. The proportions in 
wliich tiiese component parts occur vary much ; but felspar 
is the predominating, and mica the least considerable, of 
these ingredients. The grains are also of different magni- 
tudes ; when they are large, the granite is of a very coarse 
texture ; but sometimes they are so small, as almost to 
give the appearance of a uniform mass. These circum- 
stances occasion a great 'variety in the character of granite. 
When hornblend occurs in the place of mica, the rock is 
called syenite, from Syene, in Ui^per Egypt, where it was 
first known and quarried. Some felspar is liable to decom- 
position, and when this is the prevailing substance in the 
rocks, they yield to the effects of the weather, and become 
more or less of a rounded form ; but when the granite is 
hard and close-grained, which is more usually the case, 
they rise in bold prominent peaks, giving grandeur and 
boldness to the scenery. Granite is found in most coun- 
tries where there are mountains of any considerable eleva- 
tion. It forms the flanks of a considerable portion of the 
Andes, and it may be traced along the eastern spurs of the 
Appalachian range through the Southern States. It is 
finely developed through South Carolina and Georgia. 
The Stone mountain of the latter State is a naked mass of 
granite, rising four or five hundred feet above the sur- 
rounding country, and is so steep that it can be ascended 



366 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXX. 

only at one point. All New England abounds in granite, 
but the most famous quarries are along the coast of 
Maine, and at Quincy, Mass. ; from the latter place it is 
exported for building purposes to the principal cities on 
the Atlantic coast, the Gulf of Mexico, and in the West 
Indies. 

Granite is valuable on account of its great hardness 
and durability ; it is used for building, paving, submarine 
works, mill stones, troughs, and steps. 



INFLAMMABLE MINERALS. 
LESSON LXXX. 

SULPHUE. 

Occurrence. — Sulphur occurs native in the neighbor- 
hood of all active volcanoes, from which it is discharged in 
vapor, and condenses in considerable quantities in the 
gravel and ashes of the interior of the craters. At Pouz- 
zales, near Naples, the mixture of sulphur and gravel is 
dug up and distilled to extract the sulphur. The gravel is 
then returned to its original place, and in the course of 
years becomes so far charged with sulphur as to serve the 
same purpose again. It is also found more abundantly in 
beds, as in Sicily, from whence almost all the native sul- 
phur of commerce is obtained. 

Sulphur, when combined with metals, forms minerals, 
which are termed sulphurets ; these occur in most parts 
of the world ; some of them — as the sulphurets of lead, 



SULPHUK. 367 

coi^per, and zinc — are valuable ores, the sulphur itself be- 
ing burnt away and lost during the preparation of the 
metals. One sulphur et — that of iron — also termed iron 
pyrites, is useless as an iron ore, but of great value as a 
source of sulphur, containing rather more than half its 
weight. 

When this sulphurct is heated in the open air, the sul- 
phur burns away with a blue flame ; but if it is heated in 
close vessels, half the sulphur it contains is driven off in 
vapor. This is collected in a solid or liquid state in a cold 
part of the apparatus ; the residue of the mineral is con- 
verted, by mere exposure to the air, into green vitriol, a 
preparation of iron largely used in dyeing black and in 
makin-o; ink. 

The usual form in which sulphur is prepared is in cylin- 
drical sticks, known as roll sulphur, or roll brimstone. 
These are formed by casting it in hollow wooden moulds, 
so made as to divide into two parts longitudinally. 

Properties. — Sulphur is a mineral of a bright yellow 
color, nearly twice as heavy as water, in which it is quite 
insoluble ; tasteless, and without smell when cold, but 
odorous when rubbed or warmed : it is brittle, and a very 
bad conductor of heat, so that, if a roll is grasped in the 
warm hand, the outer part only becomes heated, and, in- 
creasing in size, is forced away from the inner portion, and 
the mass breaks. 

Heated to a degree somewhat above that of boiling 
water (232 degrees Fahrenheitt) sulphur melts, forming an 
orange-colored limpid fluid ; if the heat is increased, its 
color becomes a deep red, and it thickens to such an ex- 



368 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXX. 

tent that tbe vessel may be quickly inverted Tvithout its 
being spilled; if in tins state it is poured into water, it 
forms an elastic soft solid, which, after a time, becomes 
brittle. Heated to a still higher degree, it becomes some- 
what more fluid ; and if in a close vessel, it boils away in 
vapor, which, by a greater or less degree of cold, may be 
condensed into a solid or liquid state. Heated in the air, 
it takes fire, burning with a blue flame, and producing a 
very irritating, poisonous gas or vapor. Sulphur has a 
great disposition to unite with metals ; this may be shown 
by carrying a piece in the pocket with silver coins, when 
the formation of a black sulphuret of silver rapidly takes 
place. The same result occurs if an egg is eaten with a 
silver spoon, as sulphur is contained in the yolk. 

Uses. — ^The uses of sulphur in the arts are of the high- 
est importance. The manufacture of soda from salt, dye- 
ing and bleaching, the making of leather, gunpowder, and 
congreve matches, are but a few of those manufactures- 
which mainly depend on sulphur, or its compounds, for 
existence. 

The ready inflammability of sulphur leads to its use in 
the making of lucifer matches, which are first dipped in 
melted sulphur before the compound of i)hosphorus is 
added, as the latter, from its rapid burning, would be un- 
able to set fire to the match if unassisted by the brimstone. 
The same property leads to its employment in gunpowder, 

• • • • 

to which it imparts the power of igniting wuth the slightest 
spark. The poisonous fumes which arise from its burning 
are largely employed in bleaching silk in the raw state, 
isinglass, walnuts, straw plait, and bonnets ; it is also occa- 



PLUMBAGO. 369 

sionally used in destroying rats and vermin when they have 
accumulated in ships and other close places. 

Its fusibility leads to its employment in taking casts 
from medals, coins, and similar objects, for which purpose 
it is used in its most liquid state. 

Flowers of sulphur, which are formed when the vapors 
arising during its distillation are allowed to condense in a 
solid form, are much used as a domestic medicine, and 
enter also into the preparation of vermilion and other 
chemical substances. 

Oil of vitriol, or sulphuric acid, an exceedingly corro- 
sive, poisonous liquid, is made by burning sulphur in 
furnaces constructed for the purpose, the combustion being 
assisted by the presence of other substances. Some idea 
of the use of this acid in the arts and manufactures may be 
gained from the fact that 300,000 tons are annually made 
in England, the value, at the lowest computation, amount- 
ing to several hundred thousand pounds. 

It is the most extensively used in the arts of all the 
acids, and is an important branch of manufacture in chem- 
ical works in Philadelphia, I^ewark, K. J., Roxbury, Mass., 
and other parts of the country. 

LESSOiSr LXXXI. 

PLUMBAGO. 

Occurrence and Properties. — Plumbago, which is also 

termed graphite, and black lead, occurs in many parts of 

the world ; large quantities are found in Ceylon, the East 

Indies, and several localities in the United States ; particu- 

16* 



370 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXI. 

larly at Stnrbriclge, Mass., Brandon, Vt., Fishkill, and 
Ticonderoga, N. Y. In England the most celebrated mine 
was at Borrowdale, in Cumberland, as much as 100,000?. 
having been realized from it in a year ; but the mine is 
now closed. Plumbago is of a dark leaden color, having a 
dull metallic appearance. To the touch it is very smooth ; 
and when j^laced between rubbing surfaces, enables them 
to glide easily over one another. It adheres to substances 
on which it is rubbed, staining them of a dark color, and 
imparting its own peculiar appearance. It is perfectly 
insoluble m water, and is quite infusible in the fire ; but 
heated strongly, and exposed to a current of air, it slowly 
consumes. 

Uses. — The purer varieties of plumbago are entirely 
used in the manufacture of black lead pencils, being cut up 
by fine saws into thin slips, which are glued into grooves 
cut in cedar wood. A method has also been devised of 
purifying the more gritty varieties, and condensing the 
powder into blocks, from which slices are cut that are as 
good as the best original specimens. The leads for pencils 
intended for the finest work, before being placed in the 
wood, are heated, and then immersed in hot wax or suet. 
From the dearness of the finest plumbago, compositions of 
clay, with black lead and other substances, are substituted 
in the cheaper pencils. 

The harder jDcncils have only half as much graphite 
powder as clay ; softer ones have equal parts of each. The 
hardest pencils, however, are made of an alloy of metallic 
lead, antimony, and mercury. Common pencils are made 
of graphite powder, mixed with melted sulphur, and run 



COAL. 371 

into moulds. Gum. arable and resin are sometimes used as 
ingredients. 

A large quantity of black lead is employed in polishing 
cast iron work, particularly stoves and ranges, giving to 
them a uniform color, and concealing any rust they may 
have on the surface. 

Finely powdered, it is frequently used instead of grease 
to prevent the friction between rubbing surfaces ; hence it 
is not unfrequently applied to wooden screws, &c., &c. It 
is also a valuable material for crucibles and portable fur- 
naces. It is sometimes adulterated with lampblack. 

LESSON^ LXXXIL 

COAL. 

Coal is of two kinds, anthracite and bituminous ; the 
former being the most condensed and the richest in car- 
bon. Coal may be considered as a mineral, both from its 
subterraneous situation and the qualities which it possess- 
es ; many circumstances, however, justify the now preva- 
lent opinion that it is of vegetable origin : the following 
are, perhaps, the most convincing. Carbon, which is the 
chief constituent of all vegetable matter, particularly wood, 
composes three-fourths of this substance. Coal is also 
found in the various stages of mineralization. Sometimes 
it possesses a completely fibrous texture and ligneous 
appearance, even the knots of wood being discernible, 
while the same bed produces specimens of perfect mineral 
coal. Some remarkable instances of this have been found 
in the coal mines of Pennsylvania ; the roots of trees 



372 -FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXXII. 

were imbedded in fire clay, and forming the substance of 
them (which generally underlies the coal measures), while 
the trunks passed into the anthracite beds, and almost im- 
perceptibly from these into the bituminous coal. In some 
instances the bark only was converted into coal, while the 
woody texture of the interior was still plainly to be seen. 
In Ireland a standing forest has been discovered at the 
depth of one hundred feet below the soil. To this we 
may add the inflammabiUty of this substance ; the numer- 
ous vegetable remains and impressions that accompany it ; 
and that it has never been discovered above the line to 
which vegetation reaches. These vegetable remains gen- 
erally belong to extinct species, and differ so much from 
any living species that they cannot always be referred even 
to the class to which they belong. 

Coal is of a black color, bright, and frequently irrides- 
cent ; the structure is slaty ; it occurs always amorphous ; 
it is Yerj combustible, a quality which few minerals pos- 
sess. The places from whence it is taken are called coal 
9nmes ; they abound in different portions of the world; 
especially in the United States, England, and Belgium, 
and have contributed much to the wealth of these coun- 
tries. Both the persons employed in the mines, and the 
vessels which transport the coals, are called colliers ; the 
place where the trade is carried on, a colliery. The access 
to coal mines is generally through a narrow, perpendicular 
tunnel called a shafts up which the workmen and coals are 
drawn by machinery. The mines at Whitehaven, England, 
are some of the most extraordinary in the world. The 
principal entrance is by an opening at the bottom of a hill, 



COAL. 373 

through a long sloping passage which is hewn in the rock, 
and leads to the lowest vein or bed of coal ; the descent is 
chiefly through spacious galleries intersecting each other, 
formed by the excavation of the coal, large pillars of which 
are left to support the ponderous roof These mines are 
very deep, and are extended under the bed of the sea, even 
to where the depth of the water is sufficiently great to ad- 
mit ships of burden. In these mines there are three strata 
of coal, which lie considerably apart from one another, and 
are made to communicate by pits. Miners are frequently 
impeded in their progress by veins of hard rock called 
dyJces^ and the coal is seldom found in a direct line on the 
other side of them ; to ascertain its precise situation is 
often a work of considerable labor and expense. Coal is 
generally situated at the foot of mountains, and in hollows, 
which vary much in extent ; it rarely lies much above the 
level of the sea. 

Several dangers attend the labor of miners ; the great- 
est is that arising from fire damp^ which is occasioned by 
the hydrogen gas or inflammable air produced in the mine, 
and which, when mixed with atmospheric air, explodes 
with great violence if brought into contact with any 
lighted substance. To avoid this danger, safety lamps are 
used, which were invented by Sir Humphrey Davy. They 
are of a very simple construction, consisting of wire gauze 
so closely interwoven, that gas of sufficient quantity to cause 
ignition cannot enter them. Another danger arises from 
the formation of carbonic acid gas, or fixed air, which, 
being heavier than the common air, occupies the lower 
part of the mines, and occasions death by suffiDcation. 



374 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXIII. 

Coal is used to raise the temperature of rooms ; to cook 
food; to supply the fuel for railway locomotives, ocean 
steamers, manufactories (particularly where steam is re- 
quired), and in the working of metals. Bituminous coal 
furnishes us with the gas so much used, which is the sub- 
stance called hydrogen, and exists in coal in union with 
carbon ; it is easily driven away or volatilized by heating 
the coal in a close place, and when caught and preserved, 
it forms the gas now used to light our streets and build- 
ings ; when this has been extracted from the coal, the 
residue is called coJce^ which is employed where intense 
heat is requisite. 

Coal tar is also produced in the evolution of gas, and 
was for a long time considered useless. It is now used to 
protect iron work exposed to the weather, and by distilla- 
tion it yields paraffine, which is made into candles, and also 
the coal oil which we use in lamps. 



SALINE MINERALS. 

LESSON LXXXIIL 

SALT. 

Salt is a mineral substance, beautifully white, sparkling, 
and crystalline ; it is soluble, fusible, granulous, and of a 
peculiar flavor called salme. It is a most beneficent pro- 
vision of nature that salt — the only mineral substance re- 
quired as an article of food by man and the higher orders 
of the animal kingdom — is almost everywhere accessible. 
There are several varieties of this useful mineral, which 



SALT. 375 

are distinguished by tlie different situations in whicli they 
are found. The principal are sea salt, called also bay salt, 
which is produced from the ocean ; the best comes from 
Portugal ; salt drawn from brine springs ; and rock salt^ 
which is dug out of the earth. Amongst the most exten- 
sive salt mines hitherto discovered are those at Wieliczka, a 
picturesque little town situated on the sides of a gentle 
valley, about eight miles from Cracow, formerly the chief 
city of Poland. The traveller who visits these subterra- 
neous deposits of salt, being furnished with a guide and 
two lamp bearers, is let down a shaft of about 150 feet by 
a rope. At the depth of 90 feet he arrives at the rock of 
j)ure salt, which is of a dingy soot color, here and there 
glistening by the light of the lamps. The swing is now 
abandoned, and the ear is assailed by the busy sound of 
spades, mattocks, and wheelbarrows, in every direction. 
This is the first floor of a large cavern, containing in dif- 
ferent parts a stable for twenty horses, quantities of salt, 
some in bare masses, some in casks ready to be hoisted to 
the surface, stores of implements for the miners, &c. This 
excavation is about 100 feet long and 80 broad (besides 
the stable), and about 20 feet high. From hence a long 
gallery, 12 feet high by 8 broad, leads toward the interior 
of the mine, where lateral avenues branch off in various 
directions, each named after some Austrian prince or prin- 
cess, and resembling more in appearance the avenues of a 
subterraneous palace than the passages of a mine. A 
flight of steps conducts down another hundred feet to the 
second floor ; in this descent the bed of salt is inter- 
rupted by a narrow stratum of pure clay ; sometimes by a 



376 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXIII. 

mixture of salt and the same earth ; these strata are, in 
places, very curiously curved, as though a rolling wave had 
been arrested in its course, and preserved in its original 
form. The miners are here found at work, some hewing 
I)illars of salt from the rock, some cutting them into mass- 
es for home consumption, and some stowing the masses in 
barrels for exportation. The cavern on this floor is rather 
smaller than the first ; it consists of one spacious hall, and 
has no pillar to support the roof. 

Proceeding on his subterranean journey, the traveller 
arrives at a wooden platform, from whence he looks down 
upon an abyss, which the simple lights of the conductors 
fail to illuminate, though the, spars of the mineral reflect- 
ing the rays of light produce a novel and beautiful eflect.- 
When princes or other great personages visit the mines, a 
chandelier of crystal salt, hanging in the centre, is fur- 
nished v/ith 150 lights, which display a stupendous cavern, 
having the appearance of a castle in ruins ; at the bottom 
are some rovrs of seats, rising hke the benches of a theatre ; 
opposite to these is an orchestra : here, on such occasions, 
a small band plays a few airs of slow and simple music, 
which has a most singular efi*ect, and harmonizes well with 
the surrounding scene. Long galleries and flights of steps, 
all spacious enough to allow free course to the fresh air, 
lead deej)er and deeper in the saline rock ; the scene now 
and then is varied by a cavern full of workmen, and some 
along the galleries, wheeling their little carts full of salt, 
each with its lamp in front. On the fourth floor there is 
a little subterraneous lake, about 80 feet long and 40 broad, 
over which illustrious personages are ferried on rafts of 



SALT. 311 

fir logs, lighted by numerous flambeaux. Here terminates 
the bed of greoi saU, the most common sort, and easiest 
to be cut. The next to it is called S2nca salt, which is 
harder and more close grained, and next succeeds a white 
and finer-grained variety. This part of the mine is 700 
feet below the surface of the earth ; 300 feet beneath this 
lies the finest crystal salt, which is reached by long flights 
of steps and inclined planes. The cavern in which it is 
found is sufliciently spacious for a regiment of soldiers to 
perform their manoeuvres in it. This is the deepest part 
of the mine : the air is quite pure, rather cooler than that 
of the open day, but much warmer than it is about half- 
way down. The return is through a different series of 
corridors and caverns. On the third floor is a simple tomb 
of salt, with the name of the late Emperor of Austria 
inscribed with letters of wood neatly gilt. On the second 
floor is a large saloon with all the implements of mining, 
and the mode of letting them down with men and horses 
exhibited in transparency. On the first is a chapel present- 
ing an altar, statue of the Virgin, crucifix, and figures of 
Casimir I and his wife, all cut out of the solid salt ; before 
the chapel is a small pulpit in the Gothic style. To visit 
the whole of this extraordinary and extensive mine, with 
all its galleries and caverns, no less a distance than 300 
miles must be traversed. 

The salt used in the United States is chiefly obtained 
from salt brine springs. The principal springs are at Syra- 
cuse, ]Sr. Y., in Western Virginia, and Pennsylvania, in 
Michigan, and the States bordering on the Ohio river. The 
most productive springs are about Onondaga Lake, at Syra- 



378 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON LXXXIII. 

cuse. To obtain this, wells are bored or sunk in the low 
lands about the lake, to various depths, from 200 to 300 
feet, and from these salt water is pumped up into reser- 
voirs, from which the evaporating works are supplied. It 
is allowed to remain in these reservoirs until some of its 
impurities, particularly the oxide of iron, are deposited. 
To hasten this they put in a little alum, or clay, or heat 
the brine. About one eighth of the whole salt product is 
separated by solar evaporation, and seven eighths by boil- 
ing. The great reservoirs for the former process cover an 
area of 100 acres. They are divided into tanks of about 
16 by 18 feet each, and 6 inches deep. These are provided 
with covers, or movable sheds, which are removed in 
pleasant weather. About fifty bushels of coarse salt, such 
as is used for packing and curing provisions, may be made 
annually in one of these tanks. Seventy pounds is called 
a bushel of solar salt. Of the boiled salt, fifty-six pounds 
or five of these bushels make a barrel. 

The boiling is conducted in large iron kettles, contain- 
ing about one hundred gallons, and set in "blocks" of 
brickwork, close together, either in a single line, or in two 
parallel rows, the whole length of the block. A double 
block may contain eighty kettles, and may make from 
20,000 to 25,000 bushels a year. To make forty-five 
bushels of salt requires a cord of hard wood or a ton of 
coal. There are here 312 blocks, containing 16,434 kettles, 
and capable of making 12,480,000 bushels of salt yearly. 
Just before the salt begins to crystallize, the sulphate of 
lime separates, and is caught in a pan at the bottom of the 
kettle. It is further purified and made perfectly white, 



SODA. C79 

when it is scooped into a basket, drained back into the 
kettle, and put into bins, where it is allowed to drain for 
two weeks. It is then barrelled for sale. The cost of man- 
ufacture is about one dollar per barrel. 

The conservative properties of salt render it invaluable 
lor household purposes, and for preserving meat during 
voyages; and its stimulating properties give a relish to 
food and help digestion. When fused, it is used in glaz- 
ing pottery ; it improves the whiteness and clearness of 
glass, and gives hardness to soap ; it is used by the dyer in 
fixing colors ; also, sometimes as a manure. 

It was employed in all the Jewish ceremonies, beino- 
emblematical of purity and incorruptibility. Our blessed 
Lord calls his disciples the salt of the earth ; thereby si^-ni- 
fying to them that having, by divine grace, their own 
hearts purified, they are to exercise by precept and exam- 
ple a purifying influence on the hearts of others. 

LESSON LXXXIV. 

SODA. 

Ma7iitfacfiire.— Until within the last few years, soda 
was obtained from a substance termed kelp, formed of the 
ashes of burned seaweeds. In Scotland alone, twenty-five 
thousand tons of kelp were annually produced. At the 
present time soda is prepared by fusing the native peroxide 
of tin with caustic soda in an iron crucible. 

JPi^operties. — Soda, in its ordinary state, is in the form 
of large crystals, more or less perfect. These are transpa- 
rent and colorless, containing more than half their weight 



380 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXXIV. 

of water. Exposed to a dry air, the water flies off, leav- 
ing the soda as an opaque, white powder. If the crystals 
are heated, the soda dissolves in the water they contain, 
and the whole becomes liquid ; on increasing the heat, the 
water evaporates, and at last the dry soda remains only 
as a white powder, without any trace of a crystalline form. 

Soda is very soluble in water, its taste is alkaline and 
unpleasant. It has considerable cleansing properties, as it 
renders grease and dirt soluble in hot water, and so en- 
ables them to be removed by washing. This power may 
be much increased by adding quicklime to soda, when the 
latter is rendered caustic. This mixture has been some- 
times employed for washing clothes, but it is far too corro- 
sive to be used with safety, destroying the texture of the 
linen, &c. 

Uses. — The employment of soda in domestic economy 
depends on its cleansing properties. It is used to, assist 
the action of soap in washing clothes, paint, wood, &c. In 
the chemical arts, such as making glass, soap, &c., it is of 
the very highest importance ; it also forms, in combination 
with other substances, many valuable medicines. 



PORCELAIN. 381 

MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. 

LESSON" LXXXV. 

PORCELAIN. 

Clay and flint are the chief ingredients of porcelain. 
The first gives the plasticity and tenacity requisite for the 
moulding it into a shape ; the latter renders it hard, and 
allows of a slisrht desfree of vitrification. The followingr 
is the usual process carried on in the English manufacto- 
ries of china. Flints are first calcined, then mixed in cer- 
tain proportions with Cornish granite,* and ground to a 
very fine powder; water is poured upon this mixture, and 
it is twice strained through silken sieves. It is then 
boiled till it is of the consistency of cream, and the watery 
j)articles being evaporated, it becomes a tough paste. A 
portion of this substance is then placed upon a turning 
wheel, and moulded by the hand with a precision and ra- 
j)idity which practice only can give. Vessels of a circular 
shape are formed in this manner, as bowls, plates, cups, and 
saucers ; utensils of other forms are made in moulds of 
gypsum, the pores of which absorbing the moisture of the 
clay, the vessels are contracted in size, and in consequence 
may be easily loosened from the mould. Each vessel thus 
formed is placed in a separate clay case. The furnace is 
filled with these, and then bricked closely up, and tliey are 
subjected to a red heat for sixty hours. The temperature 

* It is to the large proportion of felspar in a state of decomposition 
that Cornish granite owes the preference which is given to it. 



382 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXXVI. 

is then gradually lowered, and the porcelain is withdrawn ; 
in this state it is called biscuit^ and is Avhite, dull, and po- 
rous. This process greatly diminishes the size of the ves- 
sels; and it fits them to receive the blue color, called 
cobalt,* which has the appearance of a dirty gray till 
glazed. The glazing consists of lead and glass, ground to 
an impalpable powder, mixed in water with some other 
ingredients, Tvhich are kept secret. The biscuit is merely 
dip2)ed into the glazing, and is then baked again for forty 
hours. It is now ready to receive other colors, and the 
gilding which the pattern may require. It is baked a third 
time for ten hours or more. Lastly, the gilding is bur- 
nished with bloodstone or agate, and the china is ready for 
the loareroom. The colors are changed by baking, appear- 
ing very different when first laid on than when they have 
been subjected. to heat. Comparatively little of this ware 
is manufactured- in the United States. 

LESSOls^ LXXXVI. 

NEEDLES. 

Manufacture. — The material from which needles are 
made is soft steel wire of the requisite degree of fineness. 
This is obtained by the manufacturer in large coils, each 
containing sufficient wire to form several thousand needles. 
These coils are first cut up into pieces of the length re- 
quired to make two needles, usually about three inches, 
large shears being used capable of cutting a coil of one 
hundred wires. 

* Cobalt is an oxide of the metal of that name. 



NEEDLES. 383 

Five or six thousand of these lengths are made into a 
bundle, ke^^t together by a ring of steel at each end ; 
they are then heated to redness in a furnace, and after- 
ward laid upon a flat iron plate, and rubbed backward 
and forward with a steel bar, until each wire is perfectly 
straight. 

The next stage is to grind a point at each end of the 
wire. This is done by the aid of a grindstone about eigh- 
teen inches in diameter and four inches thick ; they are 
made to revolve so rapidly that they are liable to fly into 
pieces, and are therefore partially enclosed in iron plates to 
avoid injury to the grinder, should such an accident occur. 
The grinder takes from fifty to sixty wires between the 
thumb and forefinger of his right hand ; and as lie presses 
them against the stone, he causes all the wires to roll 
round, and thus each is ground to a point. So expert do 
the grinders become by practice, that they point a handful 
of these wires, usually about sixty, in half a minute, or 
about seven thousand in an hour. During the grinding 
every wire gives out a stream of sparks, and these to- 
gether form a bright glare of light. 

Pointing these wires is the most unhealthy part of the 
manufacture ; the fine dust is carried into the lungs of the 
workmen, and destroys them in a fcAV years, very few living 
beyond the age of forty. 

Wet grindstones cannot be used, as the points of the 
needles would be rapidly rusted. 

The wires thus pointed at each end are stamped by a 
heavy hammer, raised by a lever moved by the workman's 
foot. The under surface of this hammer is so formed, 



384 . FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON LXXXVl. 

that when it foils on the wire midway between the two 
ends, it stamps on one side the gutters or grooves in which 
the eye is afterward made; and the anvil on which the 
wire rests when the hammer strikes it forms the two 
grooves on the opposite side. This stamping also makes 
a slight depression or pit on each, side at the spot in- 
tended for the eye. 

The wires are then passed to a hoy, who takes a num- 
ber of them in his left hand, while with his right he 
works a press moving two hard steel points or piercers. 
These come down upon the w^ire as it is placed beneath 
them, and pierce the eyes for the two needles. Each 
wire novf resembles two rough, unpolished needles, uni- 
ted together by their heads ; and as it would require much 
trouble to divide them separately into two needles, a num- 
ber are threaded upon two very thin wires, and are sepa- 
rated by filing and bending. 

Any needles which may have been bent in the several 
processes are straightened by rolling under a steel bar, and 
are hardened by heating in a furnace and suddenly cooled 
in cold water or oil. After hardening they are tempered 
by being slightly heated, and, if any are bent during hard- 
ening, they are straightened by being hammered on anvils 
with small hammers ; finally, the whole are jDolished by 
laying twenty or thirty thousand side by side upon a piece 
of thick canvas, smearing them with oil and emery, rolling 
up the canvas, and rubbing them under a press for several 
hours or even days. 

Drill'ed-eyed needles undergo another operation — a 
fine drill is made to revolve rapidly in the eye of each, 



NAILS. 385 

to take off the rough edge and prevent their cutting the 
thread when used; finally,. the pohits are finished on a 
revolving hone and polished on a wheel covered with 
leather, and enclosed in a paper for sale. 

Simple as the construction of a needle may appear, 
the steel which forms it has to pass through the hands of 
one hundred and twenty workmen from the time it leaves 
the iron mine until its manufacture is completed. 

The manufacture of needles is now carried on to a 
great extent in many villages in England, but principally 
at Redditch, about fourteen miles from Birmingham, and 
from this obscure place a large portion of Europe, the 
British Colonies, and the United States are supplied. 

LESSON LXXXYII. 

NAILS. 

Manufacture and Varieties. — Three distinct kinds of 
nails, adapted to various uses, are manufactured in this 
country. It is stated that of these kinds there are three 
hundred different varieties, each variety being formed, on 
an average, of ten sizes. 

The three kinds are, wrought nails, cast nails, and cut 
or punched nails. 

Wrought nails are made of sheet iron, which is cut by 
machinery into rods of various thicknesses, according to 
the size of the nails required. The persons who convert 
these rods into nails are called nailers, and men, women, 
and even children follow the pursuit, each person usually 
making one form of nail only, and by so doing acquiring 
17 



386 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXYII. 

a remarkable degree of skill and rapidity in its pro- 
duction. 

The first process in making these nails is to heat in a 
forge one end of the nail rod to redness ; it is then ham- 
mered to a point, and the required length cut off with a 
chisel. If the nails are large, the rod is immediately re- 
turned to the forge, but if of moderate size, two nails are 
made at one heating. During the time the rod is being 
reheated, the nailer forms the heads of those cut oif, by 
hammering them, w^hile still red hot, into the hole of a 
steel instrument used for the purpose, called a bore, this 
hole being the shape of the head. 

The nailers become so expert by long. practice, that one 
man has been known to make seventeen thousand nails in 
a week without assistance. To do this would require 
more than half a million blows of the hammer. The 
usual number made by each nailer is about six thousand 
weekly. 

The different sorts of nails are named either from the 
use to which they are applied, or from their shape : as 
shingle, floor, ship carpenters', horseshoe, rose heads, dia- 
monds, sprigs, brads, and spikes. Sprigs are a small, sharp, 
taper nail, without heads, used by shoemakers. Brads are 
nails with the head on one side, and are used for nailuig 
floors and ceilings. Very large nails are called S2:)ikes. 
Rose nails have a broad, spreading, circular head, and are 
made of various degrees of strength, and for various 
uses. 

Horseshoe nails are thin and flat on the sides. They 
are made of the very purest and toughest iron, and, after 



KNIVES. 387 

having been used, the old h'on-is in considerable demand 
for making gun barrels. 

Tacks are a useful flat-headed nail, adapted for nailin^ 
down carpets, &g. They are usually small, and are fre- 
quently tinned over by boiling them in a solution of tin 
and sal ammoniac, to prevent their rusting. 

Cast nails are adapted only for coarse purposes, as for 
garden walls, nailing up lathing for plasterers, &c. They 
are rough, and have the disadvantage of being much more 
brittle than wrought nails. 

Cut nails are usually punched out of sheet iron, the 
most common form being the sparables, or sparrow bills 
— so called from tiieir resemblance to the beak of that bird 
— and brads, which have a slight projecting head on one 
side. 

The employment of nails in connecting various sub- 
stances, and the uses of the several parts, as the point, the 
shank, and the head, are too obvious to require description, 

LESSOR LXXXVIII. 

KNIVES. 

Manufacture, — Knives, or cutting instruments of va- 
rious kinds, have been used by men, from the earliest ages, 
for the purposes of war, and for slaughtering animals, cut- 
ting food and other substances. In ancient times, as at the 
present day among some barbarous nations, shells, sharp- 
edged flints, and other hard stones Avere employed; at a 
later period cutting as well as warlike instruments were 
formed of brass or bronze, but at the present time, in all 



388 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXVIII. 

civilized nations, tliey are formed exclusively of steel or 
iron. 

Clasp knives — so called from the blade shutting into 
the handle — consist of four distinct parts, viz., the blade, 
the spring, the iron sides, and the scales, or ornamental 
outsides. 

Penknife blades, which ought to be made froni the best 
cast steel, are forged, with a small hammer, from the end 
of a steel rod heated to redness, and are cut off with suffi- 
cient metal attached to form the joint ; the blade is then 
held in a pair of tongs, and heated a second time, when the 
part forming the joint is finished ; the notch called the nail 
hole, used in opening the blade, is also made by striking 
with a chisel of the required shape ; the maker's name is 
at the same time impressed by punching. The blades are 
then hardened by heating them to redness and dipping the 
cutting part in water, and they are afterward tempered, to 
prevent their being too brittle. The spring and iron sides 
of the knife are forged by hand. The scales, as they are 
termed, whether formed of ivory, bone, wood, or mother- 
of-pearl, are fitted to the sides, and drilled with holes for 
the rivets ; these are put in and tightened by hammering, 
after the various parts are exactly fitted to each other by 
filing. 

The sides and back of the handle are afterward 
scraped, and polished on a revolving wheel covered with 
leather; lastly, the blade is ground and polished ready 
for use. 



SCISSORS. 389 

LESSON" LXXXIX. 

• SCISSORS. 

Manufacture. — Scissors are forged from bar steel, heat- 
ed to redness, each blade being cut off with sufficient metal 
to form the shank and bow ; for the latter a small hole is 
punched ; this hole is afterward stretched to the required 
size by hammering it on a conical anvil ; the shank and 
bow are then filed into a more perfect shape, and the hole 
bored for the rivet; the blade is next ground, and the 
handles filed smooth and burnished v^^ith oil and emery; 
after this, the blades are screwed or riveted together, and 
fitted, so as to work pleasantly over one another. The 
screw or rivet is then removed, and the two blades, bound 
closely together with fine iron wire to prevent their warp- 
ing, are heated to redness, hardened by sudden cooling, 
and tempered. After this the wire is removed, the blades 
are again ground and adjusted, so as to bring the edges to 
a perfect state ; they are then polished by emery and oil, 
ground for the third time, put together, and the edges 
whetted, when they are ready for use, although some of 
the more costly kinds undergo the additional process of 
burnishing, by rubbing with polished steel tools, which is 
done by women. 

Uses. — The use of scissors does not require any de- 
tailed description ; it may be noticed, however, that the 
edges of the blades are not sharply ground like those of 
knives, and that in cutting they crush or bruise more than 
that instrument. This does not interfere with their use 



390 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XC. 

in cutting thin articles, as paper or cloth, but it prevents 
their being usefully employed in dividing thicker sub- 
stances. 

LESSOR XC. 

STEEL PENS. 

Manufacture. — Steel pens, which are chiefly manufac- 
tured at Birmingham, England, are made from the best 
steel, which is first rolled into narrow strips of the required 
width and thickness ; these are then cleaned by the action 
of some dilute acid, and cut by means of a punch worked 
by a screw press, into flat blank pieces of the requisite 
size ; the hole in the centre is then made, and the maker's 
name stamped on each pen ; after which, the blank is 
curved into a nib, or a cylinder if a barrel pen is required. 
Up to this stage the steel has been worked in a soft state ; 
the pens are now hardened by being heated and cooled 
suddenly by immersion in oil ; afterward they are tempered 
to the required degree of elasticity, polished by being 
placed with fine sand or some other polishing material in 
a revolving cask, and the nib ground to a fine point on a 
grindstone, or emery wheel; after this, the slit is cut by a 
chisel worked by a screw press, and the pens made ready 
for sale by being colored and varnished. The manufacture 
is chiefly carried on by women, men being employed only 
to repair the tools. It is estimated that 1,000,000,000 pens 
are manufactured at Birmingham annually. The principal 
demand for steel pens in the United States, and many 
countries of Europe is supplied from this source. 



zmc. 391 



lesso:n" xci. 

ZINC. 

Occurrence. — Zinc is not found in a native state. The 
ores from which it is extracted are of two kinds. In one, 
which is termed blende^ or, by the miners, Hack jacJc^ it is 
combined with sulphur. This ore occurs in tolerable abun- 
dance distributed amongst other ores, particularly those of 
lead, in Cornwall, Derbyshire, and in the north of England. 
The other, which is the mineral known as calamine^ is by 
far the more valuable ore ; it is found in the Mendip Hills, 
and also in Flintshire, Derbyshire, &c., England. 

Preparatio7i. — Zinc is obtained from its ores by first 
heating them to redness in an open furnace. This opera- 
tion drives off the sulphur from the blende, and some 
gases from the calamine. The roasted ore is then mixed 
with coke or charcoal, and put into large earthen pots re- 
sembling oil jars in form ; these are placed in a circular 
furnace, and from the bottom of each pot a large iron 
tube passes through the floor of the furnace into a vessel 
of cold water. AVhen the jars are heated to redness, the 
metal is reduced to the metallic state, and, being volatile, 
flies off in vapor, which, passing by the iron tube into the 
water, is condensed into a solid form. The metal so ob- 
tained is remelted, when the impurities are skimmed from 
the surface, and it is then cast into bars for use. 

Properties. — Zinc is a bluish-white metal, possessing a 
high lustre when polished, and tarnishing slowly on the 
surface when exposed to the air. The thin coat of rust 



392 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XCI. 

SO formed appears to protect the metal beneath from any 
further change. Zinc is about seven times heavier than 
water. 

As obtained by casting, it is brittle, and on being 
broken shov/s a crystalline fracture, but heated to a degree 
somewhat above that of boiling water, it becomes mallea- 
ble, and may be rolled into sheets, which retain their mal- 
leability when cold ; the sheet zinc so obtained is flexible, 
and possesses some degree of elasticity. Heated to a high 
degree, but still short of the point at which it melts, zinc 
becomes brittle, and may be powdered. 

It melts below a red heat, requiring a higher temper- 
ature 'than tin or lead ; at a bright red heat, in a covered 
vessel, it boils rapidly, passing away in vapor ; but if the 
air is admitted, by uncovering the vessel, it takes fire and 
burns .with a splendid greenish flame. 

Zinc possesses a very considerable degree of hardness, 
considerably greater than that of any of the common 
metals except copper and iron. 

IfsQs. — Zinc being only superficially acted on by air 
and water, and being much lighter than lead, has to a 
great extent, superseded that metal for such purposes as 
gutters, rain-water pipes, &c. Its lightness and cheapness 
has also led to its employment as a covering for roofs, 
and it is much employed in making baths, cans, and other 
ntensils for holding water. It is not usually employed in 
lining cisterns, as it is apt to impart an unpleasant flavor to 
the water. 

Its hardness enables it to be used for making saws for 
dividing blocks of salt ; and as it does not rust, it is pre- 



BRASS. 393 

ferable to iron for that purpose. It is also used instead of 
lithographic stone in producing prints, which are termed 
zincographs. Its lustre has led to its employment instead 
of brass for name plates on doors, &c. 

The slow action of air and moisture on zinc has also led 
to its employment as a covering to sheet iron, for protect- 
ing the latter from the action of the weather. The iron so 
protected is known as galvanized iron. It is made by a 
similar process to that used in making tinned plate, the 
iron goods being first cleaned by an acid, and dij^ped in a 
bath of the melted metal. 

Sheet zinc, perforated with holes, admitting the passage 
of light and air, is used largely in the place of wire gauze 
for window blinds, meat safes, and other purposes. 

Preparations of zinc are now largely used in house 
painting, as substitutes for white lead ; and, although they 
do not make as opaque a paint as that substance, they 
possess the advantages of being cheaper, uninjurious to 
the workmen, and are less liable to become discolored. 

A very large quantity of zinc is annually consumed in* 
the galvanic batteries required in working the electric 
telegraph. 

The only alloy into the composition of which zinc enters 
largely is brass. (See Brass.) 

LESSON XCII. 

BEASS. 

Composition. — Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, 
various proportions of the metals being employed in order 



394 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XCIII. 

to obtain different degrees of hardness and color in the 
resulting compound. The best jiroportions for common 
brass are about two joarts of copper to one part of zinc. 
Formerly brass was made by heating copj)er with calamine 
(the ore of zinc) and charcoal, but it is now formed by 
meltino; tosrether the two metals ; it is then cast into 
plates, w^hich are either broken up for recasting into any 
desired form, or rolled into sheets. 

Properties. — Common brass is very malleable, and duc- 
tile when cold. It is melted more easily than copper, and 
readily cast into any required form. It admits of a very 
high polish, and does not tarnish or rust on exposure to 
the air, and although sufficiently soft to yield without diffi- 
culty to the files and other tools of the workmen, is durable 
in wear. 

Uses. — From its malleability, ready fusibility, and duc- 
tility, brass is so easily worked that it is employed to an 
immense extent in the manufacture of machinery, wheels 
for clocks and watches, and for articles of domestic use, as 
candlesticks, pins, buttons, door handles, &c. 

LESSON XCIII. 

PINS. 

Manufacture. — ^The making of pins is, from their ex- 
tensive use, a very important article of manufacture. Two 
manufactories in Connecticut, located at Birmingham and 
"Waterbury, produce about eight tons of j^ins a week. 
They make their own brass and wire, for which they re- 
quire a ton of copper daily ; this they obtain exclusively 



PINS. 395 

from Lake Superior. In England, for home use and ex- 
portation, upward of fifteen millions are made daily. The 
old method of manufacture furnishes a remarkable instance 
of the division of labor, fourteen persons being engaged on 
each pin, without including those who formed the wire 
from which it was made. 

This method of making pins may be briefly described 
as follows : — Brass wire of the required size was cleaned 
by soaking it in water, rendered acid by oil of vitriol or 
sulphuric acid ; it was then straightened and cut into short 
lengths, each being sufiicient for four or six pins ; these 
pieces were pointed at each end by grinding on two small 
broad wheels, the first used being made of steel, and cut 
like a file ; the second a fine grit stone ; the grinder would 
take from fifty to eighty pin wires in his hands, and, 
spreading them out flatly, apply them first to the revolving 
file, and afterward to the stone to pohsh them, rolling the 
wires during the whole time between his hands, so as to 
bring them to rounded points at the ends ; from the wires 
thus pointed one pin's length was cut off at each end; 
they were then pointed again, and two more pins' lengths 
cut off, and finally they were pointed and divided in the 
centre ; the stems of the pins were thus complete, and the 
next step was to form the head ; this was effected by wind- 
ing, in a lathe, some soft small brass wire in a close spiral, 
around a piece of steel wire, the same size as the pins ; this 
steel wire having been withdrawn, the coils were cut up 
into short pieces of two or two and a half turns each, when 
they are ready to fix on the stems ; this was done by the 
worker, usually a boy or girl, who would take up sevei'al 



396 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XCTII. 

of the headless pins, and plunge them into the heads, which 
are contained either in a bowl or in his apron ; the wires in 
this way would each catch a head, or sometimes more than 
one ; the superfluous ones, if any, were pulled off, and the 
pins placed one at a time, points downward, in a small steel 
die, and a heavy iron bar, raised by a treadle moved by the 
foot, was allowed to fall on each, striking the top of the 
pin, and thus moulding or fastening on the head ; the pin 
w\as then removed from the die and another operated 
upon ; quick workers could head fifteen hundred pins an 
hour, and from twelve to fifteen thousand a day. 

The pins were cleaned by boiling them in an acid liquor, 
such as sour beer or wine lees, and were tinned bv boilins: 
in a solution of tin; after this, they were polished by being 
shaken in bags partly filled with bran, which was afterward 
separated by winnowing, leaving the pins dry, clean, and 
ready for papering. The paper in Avhich pins were stuck 
for sale was folded by a crimi^ing iron, and the folds were 
placed between the jaws of an iron vice, across which 
grooves are fixed as a guide ; the paperer passed a horn 
comb into a heap of pins in her lap, catching up a number 
by the heads ; these were thrust through the folds of the 
paper, one in each groove. The improvements introduced 
into the manufacture by American inventors have entirely 
changed its character and led to a more rapid production 
of pins, and at a much less cost of labor. The machinery 
for sticking pins saves much time and labor. The only 
attention the machine requires is to supply it with paper 
and pins. 

Solid-headed pins are made of a single piece of wire, 



PEWTER. 397 

the heads being pressed by the aid of machinery. The 
pins so made are more elegant, and the heads cannot come 
off; but they bend easily, as this mode of manufacture 
necessitates the use of a softer wire than for the common 
kinds. 

LESSON XCIV. 

PEWTER. 

Composition. — Pewter is an alloy, the composition of 
which varies according to the purposes for which it is re- 
quired. Its base is always tin, to which is added, for the 
inferior kinds, about one quarter of its weight of lead ; this 
latter metal, however, is not used in making the best pew- 
ter, wiiich consists of tin with very small proportions of 
antimony and copper. 

Properties. — Pewter is soft, flexible, but inelastic ; ca- 
pable of being bent to a considerable extent, and again 
straightened, without cracking. It is of a whitish color, 
with a very considerable degree of brilliancy, and, al- 
though it becomes dull, it does not readily tarnish when 
exposed to air or moisture. It is very fusible, and may be 
readily cast in any desired form. 

Uses. — Formerly pew^ter was in almost universal use 
for plates and dishes, but it has gradually been displaced 
by the great cheapness of pottery ware. It is still em- 
ployed for beer and other measures which are exposed to 
violence, as it is not liable to crack, and if pressed out of 
shajDC, can be restored by beating on a mould. Its softness 
also allows the engraving of names and addresses without 
much labor, and, therefore, cheaply. 



398 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON XCIV. 

Britannia metal may be regarded as a harder and supe- 
rior kind of pewter, containing a larger proportion of anti- 
mony. The best consists of ninety parts of tin, ten of 
.antimony, and one and a half of copper. Like pewter, it is 
readily cast into moulds or rolled into sheets ; it is suffi- 
ciently soft to be stamped with cast iron, or even hard 
brass dies ; it is also capable of being turned in a lathe, 
and fluted or moulded by pressure ; hence it is extensively 
employed in making spoons, teapots, pitchers, and other 
domestic articles. The superior kinds are often plated 
with silver, by the electro process. 



YOCABULAEY. 



AROMATIC, derived from the Greek dpw/ta, aroma : spice having a pun- 
gent spicy smell. 

ADHESIVE, derived from the Latin ad-hger-ere, to stick to : composed of 
particles which not only unite together, but attach themselves to other 
substances, causing them to stick together ; — thus the particles of gum 
have a strong mutual cohesion ; it also easily attaches itself to paper 
and other substances, causing them to hold together. 

AFFINITY, derived from the Latin affin-w, related : the tendency which 
some bodies have to unite with others. 

ABSORBENT, derived from the Latin absorb-er^", to suck up : sucking up 
liquids. An absorbent substance must be also porous, for if there were 
no pores, the liquid could not enter the substance. 

AGGREGATION, derived from the Latin aggreg-are, to collect together in 
one flock. A collection of things brought together in one. 

ARGILLACEOUS, derived from the Latin argilla, clay : partaking of the 
nature of clay, or consisting principally of clay. 

ALLOY, an inferior metal mixed with one more precious ; or the com- 
pound of two metals. 

ASTRINGENT, derived from the Latin ad-string-er^, to bind to : binding, 
contracting. 

AMORPHOUS, derived from the Greek a (a) not, and fiopcpT] (morphe) a 
form : without any regular form. 

ACIDULATED, derived from the Latin acid-ulus, slightly acid : made 
slightly acid. 

ACRID, from the Latin acri-5, sharp : hot, or sharp to the taste. 

ANNEAL, to heat glass after it is blown, that it may not break. 



400 VOCABULARY. 

AMALGAM, the combination of mercury with any other metallic sub- 
stance. 

AQUAFORTIS, signifies literally strong water, but is applied to a weak 
nitric acid. 

ALKALI, a substance which, uniting with acids, neutralizes their acidity : 
it derives its name from a plant called kali, from the ashes of which al- 
kaline substances are procured. 

ATMOSPHERE, derived from the Greek arixos (atmos) vapor, and a<paipa 
(sphaira) a globe or sphere : the air that surrounds our globe is com- 
posed of oxygen and nitrogen. 

BRITTLE, easily broken : hard substances only are brittle. 

CONGEAL, derived from the Latin con, together, and gel-t(, cold : to turn 
from a liquid into a solid by the influence of cold. 

CIRCLE, a circle bounded by a curved line, which is equally distant at 
every point from the centre. 

CIRCULAR, in the form of a circle. 

CONE, a solid bounded by a flat circular surface called the hase^ and a 
curved surface tapering to a point, called the apex. 

CONICAL, having the form of a cone. 

CALCINED, burnt in a fire and reduced to a calx, or friable substance. 

CULINARY, derived from the Latin culina, a kitchen : belonging to the 
kitchen. 

CHALYBEATE, derived from the Greek xaAvi|/ (chaly-6s) iron : impreg- 
nated with iron or steel. 

CORROSIVE, derived from the Latin rod-erf, to gnaw : having the power 
of eating away anything. 

CONTAGION, derived from the Latin con, together, and tan-^er?, to 
touch : something proceeding from body to body, by which disease is 
communicated. 

CONCAVE, the inner curve of a hollow sphere. 

CONVEX, the outer curve of a sphere. 

CONSERVATIVE, derived from the Latin con, together, and serv-are, to 
keep : having the power of preserving or preventing decay. 

CAUSTIC, derived from the Greek kuvcttikos (causticos), burning : having 
the power to destroy the texture of parts by burning or eating them away. 

COHERE, derived from the Latin co, together, and hxr-ere, to stick : to 
stick together. 

CALORIC, derived from the Latin cal-or, heat : heat. 

COLLISION, derived from the Latin coUis-MS, struck together: the act of 
striking two bodies together. 

COMPACT, firm, solid, close. 



VOCABULARY. 401 

CARBOX, derived from the Latin carbo, charcoal : the pure inflammable 

part of charcoal. 
CARBONIC ACID, carbon united with a certain portion of oxyo-cn. 
CALCAREOUS, derived from the Latin calx, lime : consisting principally 

of lime. 
COMPONENT PART, derived from the Latin con, together, and pon-?>T, 

to place : a part forming with others a compound body. 
CYLINDER, derived from the Greek Kv\ivd(a (kylindo), I roll: a solid 

bounded by one curved surface and two flat ends. 
CYLINDRICAL, having the form of a cylinder. 
DUCTILE, derived from the Latm dnc-tilis, capable of being drawn out in 

length. 
DECOMPOSITION, the separation of the particles of a compound body. 
DILATABLE, derived from the Latin dilat-are, to extend : capable of be- 
ing expanded. » 
DENSE, close, thick : the opposite to rare. 
DILUTED, derived from the Latin diln-ere, to wash : having been made 

thinner or weaker. 
ECONOMICAL, derived from the Greek oiKovoixia (oikonomia), household 

management : relating to the management of a family. 
ELEMENT, a substance not compounded, having but one constituent part. 
EMOLLIENT, derived from the Latin moll-is, soft : having the power to 

soften. 
EXPORTED, derived from the Latin ex, out, and port-arc, to carry : to 

carry out of the country. 
EXOTIC, derived from the Greek i^a (exo), without : not produced in our 

country : particularly applied to plants. 
EVAPORATE, derived from the Latin e, out from, and vapor, vapor : to 

pass off in a vapor. 
EXCRESCENCE, derived from the Latin ex, out, and cresc-ere, to grow : 

something growing out of another body, not useful to it, and contrary 

to the common order of production. 
EXHALE, derived from the Latin ex, out, and hal-are, to breathe: to 

send out vapors or fumes. 
ELASTIC, having the power, when bent or stretched, of returning to its 

original position. 
EFFERVESCENT, derived from the Latin effervesc-ere, to boil up : bub- 
bling up with internal commotion. 
EDIBLE, derived from the Latin ed-ere, to eat : fit for food, eatable. 
FRAGRANT, having a sweet scent. 



402 VOCABULARY. 

FLUID, derived from the Latin flu-ere, to flow : having parts easily sepa- 
rable, and flowing about. 

FUSIBLE, melting in fire. 

FRIABLE, easily crumbling. 

FOLIATED, derived from the Latin foW-iun, a leaf: composed of leaves, 
or lamina3. 

FRACTURE, derived from the Latin fract-ws, broken: the appearance of 
a mineral when broken. 

FRAGILE, derived from the Latin frang-ere, to break : easily broken or 
injured. 

FLEXIBLE, derived from the Latin flex-tis, bent : easily bent. 

FRICTION, derived from the Latin fric-are, to rub: the act of rubbing 
two bodies together. 

FARIXACEOUS, derived from the Latin farina, flour : mealy, of the na- 
ture of flour. 

FILTRATION", derived from the Latin filtr-?(?«, a colander: the process of 
passing a liquid through the interstices of another body. 

FERMENTATION", derived from the Latin ferment-«???, leaven : internal 
commotion in the particles of a body: plants undergo fermentation 
when they decompose. 

GLUTINOUS, derived from the Latin gluten, glue : tenacious, viscid. 

GLOBULE, derived from the Latin ^loh-ulus, a small globe : small globe 
or sphere. 

GRAMINIVOROUS, derived from the Latin gramen, grass, and Yov-are^ to 
eat : feeding on grass. 

GRANULOUS, derived from the Latin granul-t«?i, a little grain : separat- 
ing into small particles, or grains, as sand. 

GENERIC, derived from the Latin gener-a, kinds : relating to a genus, oi 
kind of things. 

GRADUATED, derived from the Latin gradu-s, a step : marked by a reg- 
ular increase of degrees. 

HORIZON, derived from the Greek opiCwv (horizon), bounding : the line 
that bounds our view. 

HORIZONTAL, in the same direction as the horizon. 

Hermetically sealed, so scaled as entirely to exclude the air. 

HYDROGEN, derived from the Greek vScup (hydor) water, and yewaeiu 
(gcn-7iaein) to produce : the lightest gas : with a certain portion of oxy- 
gen it forms water. 

(RIDESCENT, derived from the Latin irid-escere^ to become like a rain^. 

• bow : shininc; with the colors of the rainbow. 



• VOCABULARY. 403 

IMPALPABLE, derived from the Latin in, not, and palp-aj-e, to feel : not 
to be perceived by touch. 

IMBRICATED, derived from imbric-arc, to cover with tiles : arranged in 
the manner of the tiles of the house. 

IMPORTED, derived from the Latin in, into, and port-a?'e, to carry : car- 
ried into a country. 

IMPRESSIBLE, derived from the Latin in, and press-ws, pressed : easily 
receiving and retaining an impression. 

INDIGENOUS, derived from the Latin indig-e«a, native : the natural pro- 
duction of the country. This term is applied to vegetables, as native is 
to animals. 

INSIPID, derived from in, not, and sap-ere, to savor : having but little 
flavor. 

INCOMBUSTIBLE, derived from in, not, and combust-z«s, burned: noc 
to be consumed by fire. 

INTERSTICE, derived from the Latin inter, between, and stit-i«/2, placed : 
small space between the different parts of the body. 

IMPREGNATED, filled with any quality or thing. 

INCISION, derived from the Latin incis-z<5, cut in : a cut or wound made 
by a sharp instrument. 

IMPERVIOUS, derived from the Latin in, not, per, through, and via, a 
way : presenting no passage. A substance is impervious to a liquid 
when it presents no poi-e or passage by which it can enter. 

IGNITED, derived from the Latin igni-.s, fire : having been kindled or set 
on fire. 

INFUSION, derived from in, into, and fusus, poured : a liquid in which 
something has been steeped to draw out its properties. 

LIQUID properly signifies that which has been melted : anything which we 
drink, or which forms into drops. Air is a fluid. Water is both fluid 
and liquid ; when we speak of it as a stream or current, it is properly 
called a fluid, but when we speak of it as passing from a congealed to a 
dissolved state, it should properly be called a liquid. 

LAMINA, a thin plate, 

LAMINATED, formed of thin plates or laminae. 

LATERAL, derived from the Latin latera, sides ; at the side. 

LIGNEOUS, derived from the Latin lign-«m, wood : made of wood, or 
having a woody structure. 

LUBRICOUS, derived from the Latin lubric-r<5, slippery: slippery, smooth. 

LAYER, that which is spread over a substance. 

MAGNIFYING, derived from the Latin magn-ws, great, and fi-cr/, to be 
made : making things appear larger than they actually are. 



404 VOCABULAEY. • 

MALLEABLE, derived from the Latin malle-M5, a hammer: capable, 
when beaten, of great extension without the particles being sep- 
arated. 

MALEFACTOR, derived from the Latin male, badly, and factor, doer : a 
criminal, an evil doer. 

MATURITY, derived from the Latin matur-z^s, ripe : ripe, or having ar- 
rived at its most perfect state. 

MARINE, derived from the Latin mare, the sea : belonging to the sea. 

MEAGRE, dry and harsh to the touch : a term applied to earthy minerals, 
as chalk. 

METALLIC, composed of a metal, or of the nature of a metal. 

NATIVE, derived from the Latin nat-i^s, born : growing naturally in a 
country. When applied to a metal, it means that it is not mixed with 
any other substance. 

NUTRITIOUS, derived from the Latin nutr-aVe, to nourish: containing 
much nourishment. 

NEUTRALISE, derived from the Latin, neut-e?*, neither : to destroy the 
distinguishing qualities of anything. The compound of an alkali and 
an acid has not the qualities of either, both being neutralised by their 
action upon each other. 

NITROGEN, a gas : united in certain proportions with ox3'gen, it forms 
atmospheric air. 

NITRIC ACID, nitrogen, united with a certain proportion of oxygen. 

NITRATE, nitric acid united with another substance. 

OXYGEN, derived from the Greek o^vs (oxys), acid, and yeuuaen^ (gen- 
naein\ to produce : a gas ; united in certain proportion with oxygen, 
it forms the air; with hydrogen, water. 

OXIDE, that which is united with oxygen. 

ODOROUS, derived from the Latin odor, a smell : having a smell. 

OVAL, derived from the Latin ov-m??i, an egg : having the form of 
an e^^. 

OLEAGINOUS, derived frota the Latin ole-?.«n, oil : oily. 

ORE ; a metal is termed an ore when united v/ith another mineral sub- 
stance. 

OPAQUE, derived from the Latin opfic-ws, dark : dark, not admitting any 
light to pass through. 

PONDEROUS, derived from the Latin pond-r«s, a weight: heavy. 

PORTABLE, derived from the Latin port-are, to carry : easy to carry. 

POLARITY, the property of turning towards the poles. 

PLIABLE, derived from the French pli-er, to fold : easily folded into 
plaits. A young twig is flexible, linen is pliable. 



VOCABULARY. 406 

PULYERABLE, derived from the Latin pulv-is, dust : capable of being 

reduced to a powder or dust. 
PERFORATED, derived from the Latin perfor-are, to bore throu"-h : 

pierced with lioles. 
PLASTIC, derived from the Greek irKaacreiu (plas3-cj?<), to form : capable 

of being moulded into any form. 
PETRIFACTION", derived from the Latin petra, a stone, and fac-erc, to 

make : turned into stone. 
PARALLEL, derived from the Greek irapa (para), by the side of, and 

a\\r}\wv (allelon), each other ; running in the same direction with an- 
other thing, and always keeping at the same distance from it. 
PERFECT, when applied to a metal,. signifies that it does not lose any of 

its weight by fusion. 
POROUS, derived from the Greek Tropoy (poros), a passage : full of small 

pores or holes. All bodies are more or less porous, but the quality is 

only attributed to those in which it is obvious. 
PUNGENT, derived from the Latin pung-e/v, to prick: warm to the 

taste. 
PROCESS, derived fi'om the Latin process-ws, a going forward: a regular 

course by which anything is done. 
PERPENDICULAR, derived from the Latin perpendicul-?«n, a plumb 

line : in the same direction as a plumb line, hanging freely. 
PENDULOUS, derived from the Latin pend-ere, to hang : hanging sus- 
pended. 
QUADRANGULAR, derived from the Latin quatuor, four, and angul-w», 

an angle : a form having four angles. 
REFLECTIVE, reflecting, or giving back an image : this quality depends 

upon brightness. 
RESERVOIR, derived from the Latin reserv-arc, to keep : a place where 

anything is kept in store. 
RARITY, thinness as applied to fluids : the opposite to dense. 
ROASTING, with respect to minerals, the process by which their volatile 

parts are evaporated. 
RHOMB, derived from the Greek ^o/n$os (rhombos), a rhomb : a surface 

bounded by four equal straight lines; its opposite angles are equal, 

but not right angles. 
RHOMBOHEDRON, derived from the Greek po/x^os (rhombos), a rhomb, 

and iSpa (hedra), a base : a solid bounded by six rhombs, any one of 

which may be its base. 
STRATUM, derived from the Latin strat-wm, laid : a bed or layer. 
SUPPLE, easily bent in any direction. 



406 VOCABULARY. 

SMELTING, the process by which the pure metal is separated from the 
earthy particles with which it is combined in the ore. 

SILICIOUS, derived from the Latin sil-e.r, flint: consisting principally of 
silex or flint. 

SECRETION, derived from the Latin secret-?<s, separated : that which is 
separated from any other substance. Tears are an animal secretion : 
the honey in flowers is a vegetable secretion. 

SOLUBLE, derived from the Latin solv-erc, to loosen : melting in a liquid. 

SOLVENT, having the power of dissolving things. 

SOLUTION, that which contains anything dissolved. 

SPHERE, derived from the Greek acpaipa (sphaira), a globe or sphere : a 
solid bounded by one curved surface, which is •^ually distant in every 
part from the centre. 

SPHERICAL, having the form of a sphere. 

SOLID, filling up space : in this sense it is opposed to hollow. 

SOLID, having particles adhering closely together : in this sense it is op- 
posed to fluid. 

SONOROUS, derived from the Latin son-us, a sound : capable of producing 
sound. 

SUMMIT, derived from the Latin summ-ws, highest : the top Or highest 
part. 

SAPID, derived from the Latin sap-^ re, to savor : having a flavor. 

SPARKLING, bright in parts and not over the whole surface. 

SATURATE, derived from the Latin satur, full : to fill anything till it can 
receive no more. 

SEMI-TRANSPARENT, derived from the Latin semi, half, trans, through, 
and par-ew.s, appearing : presenting an imperfect passage to the rays of 
light, so that objects do not appear clearly through. 

TRANSPARENT, derived from the Latin trans, through, and par-e?is, ap- 
pearing : yielding a free passage to the rays of light, so that objects 
appear through. 

TRANSLUCENT, derived from the Latin trans, through, and lux, light : 
yielding a partially obstructed passage to the rays of light, so that light 
only appears through. 

TENACIOUS, derived from the Latin tenax, holding : having particles 
uniting firmly together. Gum being tenacious, the particles cannot 
easily be sepai^ated, and on this account it acts as a cement ; glue, be- 
ing more tenacious, acts as a still stronger cement. 

TUBULAR, derived from the Latin tubul-?«s, a small tube : having the 
form of a hollow cylinder. 

TOUGH, capable of being bent or extended without breaking. 



VOCABULAKY. 407 

TARTAR, a hard substance deposited on the sides of a cask during the 

fermentation of wine. 
TARTARIC ACID, tartar combined with a certain portion of oxygen. 
TRIANGLE, derived from the Latin tres, three, and angul-ws, aa angle : a 

form that has three angles. 
TRIANGULAR, having the form of a triangle. 
TRANSMITTED, derived from the Latin trans, across, and mitt-ere, to 

send : sent from one person or place to another. 
"VACUUM, derived from the Latin vacu-e^s, empty : space completely 

unoccupied. 
VELOCITY, derived from the Latin velox, swift : speed, swiftness. 
YISCID, derived from the Latin xisc-us, bird lime : glutinous, tenacious. 
VITRIFIABLE, derived from the Latin, vitr-?wn, glass, and fi-en, capable 

of being converted into glass. 
VOLATILE, derived from the Latin vol-are, to fly : passing or flying off 

naturally by evaporation. 
UNCTUOUS, derived from the Latin unct-?<s, anointed : fat, clammy, oily. 




V 



LBJL '09 



'Ov X i 



